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Wang et al. Soft Sci 2024;4:32 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.15 Page 9 of 27

Figure 4. TEC-based BTMS module and performance testing: (A) Configuration of the basic thermal unit setup; (B) Block diagram of
the thermal management system; (C) Heating test at 4 Amps; (D) Cooling test at 10 Amps. Temp@A refers to the temperature at the
hose system and near the TEC. Temp@B refers to the temperature at the bottom end of the front battery [55] . TEC: Thermoelectric
cooler; BTMS: battery thermal management system.

methods, such as air cooling, liquid cooling, PCM cooling, and heat pipe cooling, to integrate their
respective advantages and enhance the overall thermal management efficiency of the system.

BTMS based on TEC and air cooling
Air cooling provides benefits such as simple structure, high reliability, and low cost. However, its
effectiveness deteriorates at elevated ambient temperatures (313~328 K), and it cannot maintain uniform
temperature distribution among battery cells [60,61] . Alaoui proposed a TEC-BTMS system that incorporates
forced air cooling . This system is illustrated in Figure 5A; in a single unit of a 48-cell BTMS, six TEC
[32]
modules [selected the 9506/031/400 TEC module, each module has a 55 mm (L) × 55 mm (W) × 4.85 mm
(H) single-stage, 31-couple, 40-amp module with a plain ceramic surface] were installed on the surface of
60 Ah lithium-ion pouch cells and bolted onto an aluminum plate. Additionally, to enhance heat
dissipation, four fans were installed on the right side of the heat sink to exhaust the heat generated by the
battery effectively. Evaluation results showed that under a constant discharge current of 3C, the highest heat
rate observed was 168 W, and each TEC module managed up to 28 W. The system used 919 Wh to lower
the battery pack temperature from 330.6 to 319.8 K; under US06 cycle conditions, the system consumed
317 Wh to lower the battery pack temperature by 8.82 K. Meanwhile, the COP of the system was
approximately 0.9 for regular testing and approximately 1.2 for cycle testing, indicating good performance
[32]
in maintaining battery temperature and reducing energy consumption . In 2017, Alaoui designed a TEC-
BTMS system combined with forced air cooling, with four TEC modules (9506/031/400 TEC module, TEC
maximum cooling power is 92 W) installed on the positive and negative poles as well as the center of the
[62]
battery pack, applied to lithium-ion batteries recovered from electric vehicles [Figure 5B] . The BTMS