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Wang et al. Soft Sci 2024;4:32 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.15 Page 7 of 27

[43]
configurations, including orderly, staggered, and crossed arrangements . Their findings revealed that the
orderly arrangement provided the most effective cooling performance and temperature uniformity ,
[43]
followed by the staggered arrangement, with the crossed arrangement performing the least effectively .

Numerical method
When selecting numerical analysis methods, reducing research time is always a crucial consideration.
Hence, researchers from different fields continue to explore more excellent methods to achieve more
accurate research results in their respective areas. For the design and simulation work of BTMS based on
TEC, choosing appropriate software can greatly enhance the efficiency and accuracy of design and
simulation. Currently, commonly used design and simulation software include: (1) COMSOL Multiphysics:
It is a multi-physics simulation software that can simulate complex physical phenomena including heat
conduction, fluid flow, electromagnetic fields, etc. In BTMS design, it can accurately model the temperature
distribution of battery packs, the cooling effect of TEC, and the overall thermal performance of the
system [44-46] ; (2) ANSYS Fluent: As a computational fluid dynamics simulation software, it plays an
important role in simulating processes such as fluid flow, heat transfer, and chemical reactions. In BTMS, it
can effectively simulate the airflow around battery packs and analyze the impact of convective heat transfer
on battery temperature [47-49] ; (3) Simulink: As an important module of MATLAB, it is mainly used for
modeling and simulating dynamic systems. In BTMS, it can build battery thermal models, TEC control
models, and dynamic response models of the entire system, facilitating system parameter optimization and
performance analysis [46,50] . Different software has its characteristics and applicability, so the selection should
consider design requirements, system complexity, and other factors comprehensively. Moreover, to ensure
the accuracy of the results, it is usually necessary to validate and correct the simulation model with
experimental data [44,50] .

The thermal distribution analysis of the BTMS based on TEC involves the following steps [33,39,51] : (1) System
Modeling and Setup: After determining the materials of system components, their physical properties, and
heat transfer characteristics, use specialized thermal simulation software (such as COMSOL, ANSYS Fluent,
etc.) to establish a three-dimensional model of the BTMS. This includes key components such as the battery
pack, TEC, heat dissipation structures, etc., [Figure 3]; (2) Initial and Boundary Conditions Setup: Set the
initial conditions and boundary conditions of the model according to the actual working environment and
operating conditions. For example, set the ambient temperature, convective heat transfer coefficient, TEC
operating parameters, etc. In Figure 3, the red dots represent the temperature probe positions; (3) Grid
Independence Analysis: Divide the model into grids for numerical computation. The refinement level of the
grid affects the accuracy of the calculation results, so choose an appropriate grid size based on actual
requirements; (4) Design and Validation: Set simulation parameters, and analyze the temperature
distribution characteristics of the battery pack under various operating conditions, such as the highest
temperature point, temperature gradient, etc. Evaluate the cooling effect of the TEC and analyze its role in
improving battery thermal performance. Based on the analysis results, optimize the design of the BTMS,
such as adjusting the layout of the TEC, changing the heat dissipation structure, etc. If necessary, validate
the accuracy of the simulation results through experiments.

PROGRESS AND ADVANCES
Over the past decade, thermoelectrics have garnered significant attention due to their potential applications
in eco-friendly energy solutions and energy management [2,6,52,53] . TEC has found application in the
automotive industry, particularly playing a significant role in climate control systems for electric vehicles
and cooling/heating systems for luxury car seats [22,54] . In 2003, Salameh and Alaoui first proposed the use of a
thermoelectric module based on the Peltier effect for thermal management of passenger cabins and battery