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Wang et al. Soft Sci 2024;4:32 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.15 Page 13 of 27

Figure 7. TEC-based BTMS combined with liquid cooling: (A) Installation illustration of BTMS system integrating TEC and liquid
cooling, along with temperature measurement points. Reprinted with permission [70] . Copyright 2020, WILEY-VCH; (B) Schematic
representation of BTMS system incorporating TEC and liquid cooling. Reprinted with permission [71] . Copyright 2023, Elsevier; (C) BTMS
integrating liquid cooling with TEC, depicting various configurations of the BTMS. Reprinted with permission [72] . Copyright 2024,
Elsevier. TEC: Thermoelectric cooler; BTMS: battery thermal management system.

cold plates and TEC cold plates stacked on the top and bottom of the housing, respectively. The placement
and quantity of TECs within the DA-BTMS significantly influence its cooling capabilities. Three different
DA-BTMS configurations were designed based on the number and position of TECs: Case 1 features two
TECs arranged diagonally, Case 2 has four TECs in a symmetrical layout, and Case 3 includes two TECs