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Choi et al. Energy Mater. 2025, 5, 500106 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/energymater.2025.50 Page 19 of 28

Figure 10. Ionic thermoelectric supercapacitor (ITESC). (A) Schematic illustration of the operation mechanism at the four stages of an
ITESC with the PAA-PEO-3MNaCl ionic hydrogels; (B) Thermo-ionic charging and electronic discharging four-stages curve; (C)
Voltage profiles of the external loads with different resistances; (D) Plot of the total charging and discharging energy versus the
resistance of the external load. Reproduced with permission [88] . Copyright 2023, Wiley-VCH GmbH; (E) Thermal-ionic charging and
electronic discharging four-stages curve of the PAM/CMC-2LiCl ionic hydrogel; (F) Schematic diagram of an ITESC consisting of 5 legs;
(G) Thermal voltage depending on the number of legs. Reproduced with permission [35] . Copyright 2024, Elsevier Ltd.; (H) Schematic
illustration of i-TE hydrogel electrolyte with corresponding voltage and temperature profiles; (I) Current density and power density
[36]
versus output voltage. Reproduced with permission . Copyright 2025, Royal Society of Chemistry.
Li et al. presented a novel approach by utilizing an interpenetrating polymer network composed of sodium
PSS-modified PVA (PVA-PSS), which effectively enhances anion diffusion while restricting cation
[36]
movement . This ionic transport asymmetry enhances thermally driven charge separation and improves
-2
energy conversion efficiency. Compared to PVA-H O-KCl (PHK, 5.5 mW m ) and PVA-H O/DMSO-KCl
2
2