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Stichnothe et al. Carbon Footprints 2026, 5, 11 Page 11 of 17

Table 3. Fatty acid composition of selected plant oils (modified from [65] )
Plant-oil Principal fatty acids

Lauric Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic a-Linoleic
Palm oil 1 43 4 40 10
Palm kernel oil 48 16 8 2 15 2.5
Soybean oil 11 4 23 54 8
Rapeseed-oil 4 2 60 20 10
Coconut-oil 49 17 9 2 6 2

Table 4. Composition of feed ingredients [67]
PKM, < 5% oil Grass, de-hydrated SBM, <5% oil Barley Wheat Corn gluten Fish-meal
Dry matter % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Crude protein g/kg 183 162 495 113 126 216 678
Crude fibre 207 260 72 54 21 90 0
Crude fat g/kg 32 34 19 19 16 28 103
Starch g/kg 6 12 68 599 691 205 0
Gross energy MJ/kg 18.9 18.7 19.5 18.3 18.2 18.7 20.2
Phosphorous g/kg 6.1 3.1 7.1 3.9 3.6 9.8 29.9
Phytate P g/kg 4 0.2 4.3 2.1 2.3 6.4 0

PKM: Palm kernel meal.

Table 5. Comparison of 0.122 kg PKM with other animal feed ingredients and mixtures
Palm kernel meal, < Soybean meal, < 5% oil Barley Sum of barley + Just soybean meal, < 5%
5% oil soybean meal oil
Mass (kg) 0.122 0.035 0.066 0.045
Crude protein g 22.3 17.3 7.5 24.8 22.3
Crude fiber g 25.3 2.5 3.6 6.12 3.24
Crude fat g 3.9 0.67 1.3 1.96 0.86
Starch g/kg 0.73 2.4 39.5 41.9 3.06
Gross energy MJ 2.3 0.68 1.2 1.88 0.88
Phosphorous g 0.74 0.25 0.26 0.51 0.32
Phytate P g 0.49 0.15 0.14 0.29 0.19

PKM is used for animal feed, but identifying a single substitute is difficult because PKM provides protein,
energy, and fiber. The composition of relevant animal feed ingredients is shown in Table 4.

Schmidt and Weidema used the Feeding Component Table of in order to calculate the substituted
[68]
[45]
products for 0.122 g PKM, which is generated when 1.0 kg palm oil is produced. PKM replaced 0.035 kg of
soybean meal (SBM) and 0.066 kg barley and generated additional 0.007 kg of soybean oil (SBO).

Alternatively, just SBM can be substituted by PKM based on the protein content, 0.122 kg PKM would
substitute 0.045 kg of SBM and 0.011 kg of SBO. Using the feed composition figures from Table 4 results in
the figures shown in Table 5.