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Stichnothe et al. Carbon Footprints 2026, 5, 11 Page 9 of 17

Figure 4. Climate change range due to LUC and yield variability. LUC: Land-use change.

Table 2. Overview of Monte Carlo simulation carbon footprint results expressed in kg CO 2eq ha a
-1 -1
Baseline LUC 1% LUC 5% LUC 10% LUC 20%
Mean 6,216 6,642 8,914 9,431 12,384
Standard deviation 778 840 999 5,247 3,516
Minimum 1,045 762 713 5,318 4,841
Maximum 11,758 11,046 14,637 164,584 58,108
Median 6,262 6,602 8,892 9,142 12,367
5% Percentile 5,223 5,432 7,410 6,466 7,302
95% Percentile 7,605 8,042 10,527 12,389 17,549
D percentile 2,382 2,610 3,117 5,924 10,248

LUC: Land-use change.

Palm oil mill
Palm oil mills are inherently energy self-sufficient, utilizing residues (mesocarp fibers and shells) to heat and
power. Processing 1 t of FFB generates 130 kg of fibers and 54.6 kg of shells. The total energy is calculated
based on the energy content and the conversion efficiency of the CHP-plant:

Total energy = Shells* LCV + fibers*LCV fibres = 43,233 * CHP efficiency
shells
The total energy content of these residues (31,123-38,045 MJ ha 1) comfortably exceeds the mill’s heat
-
demand (22,000 MJ) and electricity demand (1,623 MJ) for processing 20 t FFB. At 72% efficiency, the system
can export a surplus of 2,083 kWh to the national grid. Providing there is grid access, the CHP unit allows
the mill to transition from a net GHG-emitter to a climate-beneficial system by displacing fossil-based
electricity.