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performance of palm oil mills is access to the national electricity grid. Under conditions where surplus
electricity from CHP units can displace marginal fossil-based electricity, the mill transitions from a net GHG
emitter to a climate-beneficial system.
The CF of palm oil products is highly sensitive to yield, LUC intensity, and specific modeling choices
regarding by-product substitution. Substituting PKM by single ingredients in animal feed is not fully
convincing, future research should prioritize economically optimized feed mixtures to better reflect market
dynamics. To move toward a more sustainable economy, it is essential to demonstrate the consequences of
these modeling choices to stakeholders in policy and industry. Significant potential exists through the
application of circular economy principles, such as improved residue management through co-composting
EFB with POME to reduce methane emissions. Additionally, providing smallholders with essential
agricultural inputs and tailored technical training represents a vital opportunity to maximize yields and
enhance rural incomes while minimizing the environmental footprint.
DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
The authors contributed equally to the article.
Availability of data and materials
Inventory data not shown in this paper are available in [8,27,28] . Other data are available from the corresponding
authors upon reasonable request.
AI and AI-assisted tools statement
Not applicable.
Financial support and sponsorship
The authors acknowledge the financial support they received from the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Food
and Regional Identity (BMELH) and the Federal Office for Agriculture and Food (BLE). Grant no
2823FuI01.
Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2026.
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