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absorption.

(3) A coupling model that integrates temperature, electromagnetic parameters, and microcarrier dynamics
needs to be established to explore charge transport pathways under extreme temperatures using in-situ
characterization techniques. Additionally, machine learning algorithms should be integrated to predict
multi-scale dielectric responses validated by electromagnetic simulations.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Writing - original draft preparation: Hao, B.
Writing - review & editing: Hao, B.; Zhang, Y. B.
Investigation: Chai, Z. H.; Li, M.; Duan, J. J.; Zhang, Y.
Supervision: Zhang, Y. B.; Gong, C. H.
Resources: Li, C. P.
Conceptualization: Gong, C. H.
Project administration: Gong, C. H.

Availability of data and materials
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon
reasonable request.

Financial support and sponsorship
This work was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 22475065
and 22305066).

Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.

Copyright
© The Author(s) 2025.

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