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Page 10 of 29 Wang et al. Soft Sci. 2025, 5, 28 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2025.11

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Figure 5. Fabrication strategies of high-density sensor arrays. (A) 784 units/100 cm density sensor array. Reproduced with
permission [27] . Copyright 2023 AAAS; (B) 1,024 units sensor array. Reproduced with permission [92] . Copyright 2024 Elsevier; (C)
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64 dots/cm sensor array. Reproduced with permission [28] . Copyright 2024 Wiley-VCH; (D) 100 pixels/cm sensor array. Reproduced
with permission [29] . Copyright 2024 Springer Nature. PDMS: Polydimethylsiloxane; CNT: carbon nanotube; GNW: graphene nanowall;
PECVD: plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition; PVA: polyvinyl alcohol; IPA: isopropyl alcohol; FPC: flexible printed circuit; ALD:
atomic layer deposition.
a microfluidic thermal actuator, which offers active temperature control that promotes the solid-liquid
phase transition of GMs . Jung et al. presented a soft and stretchable multimodal thermoelectric skin
[97]
(TES). The device was mainly designed using a composite of thermoelectric and hydrophobic materials that
can function as both an energy harvester and a thermoregulator . The thermoelectric materials are an ideal
[98]
candidate for human thermoregulation. They can generate active cooling/heating with a single structure.
Lee et al. reported a skin-like and bi-functional (both cold and hot sensation) thermo-haptic device . The
[99]
skin-like thermo-haptic (STH) device can actively cool down and heat up deformable skin surfaces with
instantaneous and accurate adjustment of temperature based upon a feedback control algorithm to mimic
desirable thermal sensation, as shown in Figure 7B. These efforts belong to the category of active thermal
management strategies, which mainly utilize the flow of microfluidics and the properties of the