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Kulkarni et al. Soft Sci. 2025, 5, 12 Soft Science
DOI: 10.20517/ss.2023.51

Review Article Open Access

Soft robots built for extreme environments

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Mayura Kulkarni 1,2,# , Sandra Edward 1,3,# , Thomas Golecki , Bryan Kaehr , Holly Golecki 1,*
1
Bioengineering Department, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
2
Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
3
Mechanical Sciences and Engineering Department, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
4
Advanced Materials Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA.
#
Authors contributed equally.
* Correspondence to: Dr. Holly Golecki, Bioengineering Department, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1406 W. Green St., Urbana, IL 61801, USA. E-mail: golecki@illinois.edu
How to cite this article: Kulkarni, M.; Edward, S.; Golecki, T.; Kaehr, B.; Golecki, H. Soft robots built for extreme environments.
Soft Sci. 2025, 5, 12. https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2023.51

Received: 10 Nov 2023 First Decision: 29 Feb 2024 Revised: 21 Oct 2024 Accepted: 16 Dec 2024 Published: 20 Feb 2025
Academic Editors: Zhigang Wu, Ramsés Valentin Martínez Copy Editor: Pei-Yun Wang Production Editor: Pei-Yun Wang

Abstract
Soft material robots are uniquely suited to address engineering challenges in extreme environments in new ways
that traditional rigid robot embodiments cannot. Soft robot material flexibility, resistance to brittle fracture, low
thermal conductivity, biostability, and self-healing capabilities present new solutions advantageous to specific
environmental conditions. In this review, we examine the requirements for building and operating soft robots in
various extreme environments, including within the human body, underwater, outer space, search and rescue sites,
and confined spaces. We analyze the implementations of soft robotic devices, including actuators and sensors,
which meet these requirements. Besides the structure of these devices, we explore ways to expand the use of soft
robots in extreme environments with design optimization, control systems, and their future applications in
educational and commercial products. We further discuss the current limitations of soft robots recognizing
challenges to compliance, strength, and control. With this in mind, we present arguments for the future of robotics
in which hybrid (rigid and soft) structures meet complex environmental needs.

Keywords: Soft robotics, actuators, biorobotics, extreme environments

© The Author(s) 2025. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, sharing,
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