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Page 22 of 27 Wang et al. Soft Sci 2024;4:32 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.15

addressing localized overheating issues in liquid cooling systems, all while promoting energy efficiency and
environmental sustainability.

3. Combining TEC with PCM: PCMs are capable of absorbing or releasing significant amounts of latent
heat during phase transitions, which helps keep the battery pack stable within the optimal temperature
range. However, PCMs undergo volume changes during phase transition, and some PCM materials may
corrode container materials. Thermoelectric refrigeration modules can provide additional cooling effects
when needed, preventing PCM melting due to oversaturation of energy storage. This helps extend
temperature control time and improve system stability.

4. Combining TEC with heat pipe cooling: heat pipes exhibit high thermal conductivity and flexible shapes,
enabling rapid heat transfer to the heat dissipation area, but they have limited capacity and contact area.
Thermoelectric refrigeration technology can achieve precise temperature control in specific areas as needed.
When combined with the fast heat transfer capabilities of heat pipe technology, temperature control
becomes faster and more precise, ensuring equipment operates at its optimal working temperature.

5. Hybrid refrigeration system based on TEC: coupling TEC technology with other cooling techniques in a
BTMS allows for the full utilization of the advantages of each technology, achieving more efficient thermal
management and temperature control. Moreover, it enables the flexible selection of suitable thermal
management solutions based on the characteristics of different cooling techniques to meet diverse user
requirements.

With the increasing requirements for electric vehicle batteries, their energy density is gradually increasing.
The development of future BTMS will be influenced by factors such as the actual use of electric vehicles,
operating environments, different system performance, and economic characteristics. The combination of
TEC-based BTMS cooling technology with other cooling techniques will become more widespread.
However, TEC-based BTMS face several limitations, including efficiency constraints, power consumption
issues, thermal management challenges, and cost considerations. In the future, we may see the emergence of
more novel cooling technologies that integrate with TEC technology, further enhancing the efficiency and
performance of BTMS. According to demand, BTMS can be developed into multiple integrated subsystems,
considering the characteristics of each system to promote practical applications better. Designing more
reliable, safer, and energy-efficient TEC-based BTMS remains a key direction for future development, which
can be approached from the following aspects. The main strategies include improving efficiency, reducing
costs, flexibilization of integrated systems and market expansion:

1. Improving efficiency:
(1) Thermoelectric material development: currently, the challenge for commercially viable thermoelectric
cooling technologies is the high cost of thermoelectric materials. Bismuth telluride-based materials are
among the most commonly used commercially available materials, yet their manufacturing costs remain
high. Therefore, it is crucial to develop new thermoelectric materials or fabrication techniques to reduce
manufacturing costs.
(2) Module design optimization: enhance the design of TECs by optimizing the structure and arrangement
of thermoelectric modules to maximize thermoelectric efficiency.
(3) Advanced thermal management: implement advanced thermal management technologies, such as
efficient heat exchangers or thermal interface materials, to reduce heat losses and improve overall system
efficiency.
(4) System integration: integrate TECs with other cooling technologies to achieve higher overall efficiency.