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Wang et al. Soft Sci 2024;4:32 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.15 Page 19 of 27

Figure 10. TEC-based hybrid BTMS: (A) Schematic depiction of the single unit of the TEC system utilized for BTMS. The TEC module
design integrates a heat sink, forced air cooling, and liquid cooling. Reprinted with permission [57] . Copyright 2019, Elsevier; (B) Schematic
representation of the BTMS integrated with TEC, PCM, and a fin framework. Reprinted with permission [89] . Copyright 2024, Elsevier; (C)
Overview schematic of the experimental setup, demonstrating the integration of a battery pack with a BTMS incorporating TEC in
combination with liquid and air circulations. Reprinted with permission [90] . Copyright 2021, Elsevier. TEC: Thermoelectric cooler; BTMS:
battery thermal management system; PCM: phase change material.

unit. By adjusting the driving current of the 16 TECs through a dual-layer coordinated controller and
changing the direction of the current on the TECs, cooling and heating services can be provided to the
lithium-ion batteries, thereby regulating the temperature of the LIBP. Results indicate that this method
effectively keeps the LIBP’s average temperature within the optimal temperature range of 15 to 308 K under
complex thermal disturbances, with a maximum temperature difference of 1.7 K, 76.7% lower than
uncontrolled conditions, and a minimum temperature difference of only 0.06 K. This temperature control
strategy significantly improves the temperature adaptability of LIBPs for space applications, contributing to
further enhancing their operational performance and reliability.

BTMS based on flexible TEC
Flexible TECs are engineered to meet the demands of complex operational environments and provide
localized heat dissipation. Applications include wearable devices, localized cooling systems, and personal
[92]
temperature regulation systems . Advances in these technologies have demonstrated the significant
potential of flexible thermoelectric cooling for localized heat management. There are generally two
approaches to introduce mechanical flexibility into thermoelectric devices: one involves encapsulating low-
thickness inorganic thermoelectric materials in elastomers and connecting them with flexible electrodes,
such as silver, copper, and conductive polymers , often achieved through vapor deposition or inkjet
[93]
printing onto soft polymer or plastic substrates . In this approach, materials such as Bi Se Te 2.7 [95] ,
[94]
2
0.3
[95]
Bi Sb Te , and Bi Te /Sb Te superlattices , which exhibit ZT values greater than 1 at room
[96]
3
2
1.5
0.5
3
3
2
temperature, show considerable promise. Polyimide (PI) is commonly used as a flexible substrate due to its
low thermal conductivity, high mechanical strength, and excellent tensile properties . The second
[95]