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Yoon et al. Energy Mater 2024;4:400063 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/energymater.2023.146 Page 15 of 30

etching solvents. Among the various nanostructures, the Sb-NS anode showed a high reversible capacity of
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620 mAh g after 100 cycles, with a capacity retention of 90.2% at 100 mA g . Furthermore, the Sb-NS
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anode delivered high rate capabilities at various current densities in the 100-6,400 mA g range. The
excellent electrochemical performance of the 2D nanostructure is ascribable to its high Na-ion availability,
robust structural unity, and fast reaction kinetics. Yang et al. also fabricated 0D Sb nanoparticles, 2D
antimonene nanosheets, and 3D porous Sb networks by electrochemically delaminating bulk Sb and
exploiting varying reaction mechanisms in distinct electrolytes . The 2D antimonene nanosheet anode
[96]
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delivered a high reversible capacity of 572.5 mAh g after 200 cycles at 0.2 A g (capacity retention: 91.5%)
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and a superior rate capability of 553.6 mAh g at 5 A g . Among these multidimensional strategies, the use
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of 2D shapes is particularly well-suited for accommodating the volume expansion experienced by Sb anodes
in SIBs.
Sb-based alloys and carbon composites have also been proposed in the SIB system to achieve high
performance by effectively mitigating the significant volume changes experienced by Sb during
sodiation/desodiation [97-104] . Ma et al. synthesized an ultrafine mesoporous Sb O @Sb nanocomposite using a
2
3
[97]
one-step dealloying reaction and a two-phase Mg-Sb precursor . The mesoporous Sb O @Sb anode
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2
exhibited a high specific capacity of 659 mAh g in the second cycle, long-term cycling stability (a capacity
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retention of 99.8% after 200 cycles at 0.2 A g ), and an excellent rate capability (200 mAh g at 29.7 A g )
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[Figure 11A]. Xie et al. developed an Sb@NGA-CMP composite comprising ultrafine Sb nanoparticles
uniformly anchored in the pores of a covalent organic framework (COF) using an in-situ synthetic
3+
[98]
strategy . To facilitate COF formation, Sb was introduced as a catalyst and subsequently immobilized in
the COF channels through reduction. This unique architecture provided electronic interactions between Sb
nanoparticles and π-conjugated microporous polymers (CMPs) through nitrogen groups, thereby
accelerating charge transfer along the COF. The Sb@NGA-CMP composite anode exhibited a high rate
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capability of 223 mAh g at 2 A g , and 188 mAh g at 5 A g , and excellent Na storage performance of
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320 mAh g after 160 cycles at 0.2 A g [Figure 11B]. Zheng et al. developed a cauliflower-shaped Sb/NiSb
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composite by an electrodeposition process . The cauliflower-like structure enhanced electron transfer and
[99]
shortened the Na-ion transport length, while the inactive Ni contributed to high conductivity and
suppressed significant volume changes during cycling. These factors collectively contributed to stable
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cycling performance (521 mAh g after 100 cycles with a capacity retention of 96% at 100 mA g ) and a high
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rate capability (above 400 mAh g at 2,000 mA g ) [Figure 11C]. Ma et al. synthesized a bimetallic single-
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[100]
phase NP SnSb alloy by dealloying a ternary Mg-Sn-Sb precursor . The NP-SnSb-alloy anode delivered a
specific capacity of 506.6 mAh g after 100 cycles with a capacity retention of 94.5% at 0.2 A g and
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457.9 mAh g after 150 cycles at 1.0 A g (capacity retention: 95.5%); in addition, it exhibited a superior rate
capability with a specific capacity of 458.5 mAh g at 10 A g [Figure 11D]. Gao et al. fabricated nanoporous
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[101]
(np) Bi-Sb alloys (Bi Sb , Bi Sb , and Bi Sb ) by one-step dealloying ternary Mg-based precursors . The np-
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2
6
4
4
2
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Bi Sb -alloy anode showed the best cycling stability, exhibiting a specific capacity of 257.5 mAh g after
6
2
2,000 cycles at 200 mA g , which corresponds to a capacity loss of 0.027% per cycle. Notably, the np-Bi Sb
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2
6
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anode exhibited remarkable long-term cycling performance, even at 1 A g , maintaining a specific capacity
of 150 mAh g after 10,000 cycles with a capacity decay of 0.0072% per cycle [Figure 11E]. The outstanding
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electrochemical performance of np-Bi Sb is attributable to its NP structure with an optimal Bi/Sb atomic
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2
ratio; this structure not only alleviated the volume expansion of the active material but also effectively
promoted electrolyte permeation and the transfer of electrons and ions. Pan et al. prepared watermelon-like
nanostructures composed of Sb nanocrystals dispersed in amorphous TiPO (c-Sb@a-TiO ) by hydrolyzing
x
x
[102]
tetrabutyl titanate in the presence of SbPO nanorods, followed by calcination . The c-Sb@a-TiO anode
4
x
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delivered a specific capacity of 147 mAh g after 1,000 cycles at 1.0 A g with a capacity retention of 82%. In
a similar manner to that observed for LIBs, composite materials with carbon effectively suppress volume
expansion, improve electron/ion diffusion, and enhance cycling stability and rate capability. Alloy materials,