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DISCUSSION AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS
In the context of globalization, the geographical shift of global supply chains from developed to developing
countries has played an essential role [63-66] . Notably, the B&R region is largely composed of developing
countries, making it the primary destination for CH emissions embodied in international trade.
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Historically, developed countries generated large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions during early
industrialization, while labor-intensive and heavy industries were gradually relocated to newly
industrialized economies. Although this shift promoted economic growth in developing countries, it also
increased their resource uses and environmental costs. By contrast, with the support of advanced
technologies and financial organizations, developed countries have been able to continuously reduce their
GHG emissions.

To assess the incremental impact of CH emissions from B&R countries on the atmosphere, it is essential to
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recognize that international trade activities have shifted excess responsibility for CH emissions onto B&R
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countries, particularly on behalf of developed countries and regions. This significant contribution of CH
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embodied in trade across income groups should therefore be fully considered when determining emission
responsibility and developing mitigation policies. Furthermore, given the interconnectedness of trade,
cooperation on CH mitigation between B&R and non-B&R countries needs initiation without delay.
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Countries with established experience in reducing CH emissions can provide technical assistance, actively
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participate in the development of renewable energy in B&R countries , and increase investment in non-
[67]
carbon-intensive sectors . Such efforts would help establish effective CH mitigation strategies and ensure
[68]
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financial support.
Table 2 compares PBEs and CBEs to highlight disparities within the B&R region. Regardless of whether
emissions are measured by PBEs or CBEs, the B&R countries occupy a pivotal position in global CH
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reduction, accounting for around half of global emissions. The disparities between PBEs and CBEs are
driven by trade linkages, as CH emissions embodied in imports and exports influences inequality levels.
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Specifically, inequality in CBEs was slightly lower than in PBEs for most countries, except in the L-L income
group. The highest inequality was observed in PBEs among H-H income countries, while in CBEs, the L-L
income group exhibited the greatest inequality. Decoupling analysis further showed that most B&R
countries were in a WD state. Regarding driving factors, ΔEL and ΔP contributed to the growth of CH
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emissions, while ΔEI exhibited an inhibitory effect and emerged as the most influential factor in mitigating
emissions.

Overall, PBEs and CBEs from B&R countries have grown faster than those from non-B&R countries.
Differences are also evident across income groups within the B&R region in terms of per capita PBEs and
CBEs. A clear positive correlation exists between CH emissions and economic development: wealthier B&R
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countries tend to have higher per capita CH emissions, whereas poorer countries show lower levels. Except
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for H-H income countries, per capita CH emissions based on production are higher than those based on
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consumption. In contrast, H-H income countries generally exhibit higher CBEs per capita, suggesting
greater consumption relative to production. However, the narrowing gap between PBEs and CBEs in these
countries indicates ongoing shifts in economic structures or consumption patterns. From a production-
based perspective, the persistent gap between PBEs and CBEs, especially in L-L income countries, remains a
critical issue that requires targeted measures to balance CH emissions worldwide.
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Table 3 further summarizes the comparisons between the results of this study and those reported in
previous studies. Considering the differences between PBEs and CBEs, a systematic assessment of CH
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emissions from both production- to consumption-based perspectives is essential to mitigate CH emissions
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