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Hao et al. Carbon Footprints 2024;3:15 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cf.2024.24 Page 7 of 22

C = C * C * C (1)
F
I
R
e
where C represents intangible costs, C represents energy replenishment costs, C represents alternative
F
R
I
vehicle cost, and C represents energy inconvenience costs.
e
This study segments intangible costs into three components: energy replenishment costs, energy
inconvenience costs, and alternative vehicle costs. Energy replenishment costs are calculated based on the
time spent locating charging stations, influenced by the distribution of charging infrastructure, road
network length, and urban average speed. This is compounded by the total number of charging cycles over
the vehicle’s life cycle .
[39]
C = (S/N ) * V * N * V (2)
t
e
S
F
a
where C represents energy replenishment costs, S represents road network length, N represents the
F
S
distribution of charging stations, V represents urban average speed, N represents the number of charging
a
e
times in the entire life cycle of the vehicle, and V represents the time cost of logistics workers.
t
Charging time costs reflect the waiting period during each charging session, a significant consideration
given the longer charging times for electric vehicles compared to traditional counterparts. This waiting time
can curtail the operational window and, consequently, the earning potential of logistics practitioners.
C = T * N * V t (3)
e
e
e
where T represents the single charging time, N represents the number of charging times in the entire life
e
e
cycle of the vehicle, and V represents the time cost of logistics workers.
t
Lastly, the alternative vehicle cost accounts for the expenses incurred when electric vehicles cannot meet
service demands due to climate constraints or limited range. This cost represents the strategy of logistics
companies to maximize profitability by utilizing traditional vehicles as a fallback option when electric ones
falter.

C = M * C (4)
R
3
Ecv
where M represents the entire life cycle mileage that cannot be normally completed by the electric logistics
3
vehicle under abnormal climate conditions and must be completed by the traditional logistics vehicle, and
C represents the energy cost of the alternative traditional logistics vehicle.
Ecv
Carbon emission costs module
This study estimates the lifecycle carbon emission costs of traditional LDLVs and electric LDLVs in urban
distribution logistics scenarios, considering direct vehicle emissions (weighted carbon emissions of the
vehicle), upstream and downstream carbon emissions caused during vehicle production, and the average
price of carbon emission allowances in China’s carbon emission trading market.

As shown in Table 4, the lifecycle carbon emissions of diesel vehicles in 2022 are 107,360.40 kg, while the
carbon emissions of pure electric vehicles are only 9,890.14 kg, nearly 1/11th of that of diesel vehicles. By
2030, the carbon emissions of pure electric vehicles will be only 6,155.20 kg, indicating a significant carbon
emission advantage for pure electric vehicles.