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Hao et al. Carbon Footprints 2024;3:15 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cf.2024.24 Page 5 of 22

Table 1. Literature review summary table
Consideration of Regional/Climatic
Ref. Methodology Key contributions Limitations
intangible costs impacts
[7-10] TCO Direct cost comparison, Limited intangible cost - No
operational scenario analysis assessment
[14] AHP Multi-criteria decision support Qualitative focus, less on Partial No
direct costs
[15] DEA Efficiency and performance Lacks environmental cost No Yes
evaluation integration
[16-18] TOPSIS Comprehensive ranking of Does not account for No Yes
alternatives regional differences
[19-22] - Time cost analysis for ELCVs Isolated from broader Yes No
economic analysis
[22] - Charging time valuation - Yes No
[23,24] - Range anxiety impact - Yes No
assessment
[25] - Economic cost studies - Yes No
[26-30] - Environmental cost studies - No Yes
[31,32] - Cold climate impact on battery - No Yes
performance
[33,34] - Regional challenges in - No Yes
Northern China
[35,36] - Technical hurdles in cold - No Yes
climates
[37,38] - Economic implications of cold - Yes Yes
climate on ELCVs

Table 2. Research scenario definition
Research subject Research elements Usage elements
Traditional light-duty logistics vehicles Range (km) 800.00
rated load capacity (tons) 1.74
Service life (years) 5.00
Annual mileage (km) 93,000.00
Daily business operating mileage (km) 127.88
Electric light-duty logistics vehicles Range (km) 323.54
Rated load capacity (tons) 1.31
Service life (years) 5.00
Annual mileage (km) 93,000.00
Business day mileage (km) 122.38

electric vehicles exhibit lower maintenance and repair costs, further enhancing their economic viability.
These insights suggest that the higher initial investment in electric LDLVs is offset by significant operational
and energy cost savings, making them an increasingly attractive option in the transition toward sustainable
transportation solutions. The tangible costs module, as detailed in Table 3, provides a comprehensive
overview of these financial considerations, highlighting the long-term economic benefits of electrification in
the logistics sector.

Intangible costs module
In this study, we extend the traditional TCO model to incorporate intangible costs, introducing the PCO.
This innovative approach captures not only the direct expenses but also the inconvenience fees associated
with charging and the potential costs of vehicle replacement . The PCO model acknowledges the time
[38]