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Guo et al. Microstructures 2023;3:2023038 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/microstructures.2023.30 Page 25 of 30

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Figure 15. SEM images and digital photos for sodium metal electrodes of Na||Na symmetric cells after 50 cycles at 1 mA cm ,
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1 mAh cm . (A-C) NaClO EC/PC + 5 wt% FEC, (D-F) NaOTf/TEGDME (G-I) NaBH /DEGDME (Reproduced with permission [131] .
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Copyright 2022, The Royal Society of Chemistry).
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materials exhibit satisfactory OER/ORR activity, selectivity, and stability in the presence of Cl in seawater.
As mentioned above, the intrinsic electrocatalytic ability can be improved by adjusting the electronic
structure and atomic-scale surface-interface structure. It is believed that new insights into promoting the
electrocatalytic processes of OER/ORR in chloride-containing and seawater electrolytes will lay the
foundation for designing SMABs.

The further optimization of SMABs makes them possess promising applications as self-powering systems
for the equipment working in the deep and open sea. In order to enhance the battery performance, several
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directions should be given more attention. Firstly, it is necessary to unveil the mechanism of CI corrosion
in the ORR process. The combination of theoretical calculations and in-situ experimental investigations is
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required to reveal the effect of CI on ORR efficiency and stability. This will provide important theoretical
and experimental foundations for the development of chlorine-resistant, efficient, and stable ORR/OER
bifunctional oxygen electrocatalysts. Secondly, paying attention to the overall system design and integration
is important to establish practical and scalable SMABs. This includes optimizing cell configurations, stack
designs, and system components to maximize energy conversion efficiency and ensure long-term stability.
Thirdly, more efforts should be devoted to the optimization of membranes to enhance the transfer rate of
definite ions and improve the energy conversion efficiency and stability. When addressing these key issues,
researchers may pave the way for the development of more efficient, stable, and environmentally friendly
SMABs.

DECLARATIONS
Authors' Contributions
Conceptualization, investigation, and writing-original draft: Guo Y, Cao Y, Lu J