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Luo et al. Carbon Footprints 2025, 4, 14 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cf.2024.53 Page 15 of 24

Figure 7. Gender-specific assessment of exposure risk to traffic-derived NO pollution.
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during morning and evening rush hours. These jobs inherently involve prolonged exposure to ambient air
pollution at times when urban air quality is most deteriorated. In contrast, a greater proportion of women
are employed in indoor settings or benefit from flexible work schedules, enabling some to avoid peak
commuting times altogether, particularly due to family caregiving responsibilities. As a result, the
differences in daily activity patterns between men and women substantially contribute to the observed
disparities in cumulative NO exposure.
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Age

Different age groups exhibit varying levels of susceptibility to traffic-related NO pollution, with the elderly
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experiencing the lowest exposure risk. Specifically, recorded exposure concentrations during different time
periods were 10.58, 5.51, 14.67, and 15.78 μg/m , respectively [Figure 8].
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The observed disparities in NO exposure across age groups are primarily attributable to differences in
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travel behavior. Working-age adults are frequently present in traffic environments during peak periods,
when vehicular emissions are most intense. In contrast, older adults typically avoid peak-hour travel or
remain within residential areas. Motor vehicle emissions are a major contributor to urban NO pollution,
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accounting for over 40% of total nitrogen oxide emissions in Shanghai . Consequently, the substantial
[41]