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Cervantes-Gracia et al. Vessel Plus 2020;4:27 I http://dx.doi.org/10.20517/2574-1209.2020.22 Page 13 of 19

between CIN and CVD in the context of inflammation may rely on endothelial dysfunction and immune
response. The signaling pathways activated through endothelial dysfunction in cardiac events result in the
generation of systemic inflammation which has been found to affect the kidneys and made them more
susceptible to local inflammation processes driven by CM cytotoxicity.

Current CIN prevention strategies, such as the use of carotenoids, for instance curcumin and lycopene [142,143] ,
to limit the oxidative effects of CM are questionable due to the inconclusive evidence to support the
oxidative capacity of CM. Existing biomarkers for CIN are either non-specific, such as L-FABP, or late
indicators of renal function changes, such as changes in serum creatinine, making them poor predictive
markers at best. The relationship between CVD and CIN and the underlying mechanisms responsible for
CIN are unclear. Identifying novel biomarkers, be it genetic, redox or serum protein markers, for the early
detection of CIN will help gain a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Greater mechanistic
understanding is required to better predict and treat CIN.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Design and conception of the original draft: Cervantes-Gracia K, Raja K, Llanas-Cornejo D
Original draft text editing: Cervantes-Gracia K, Raja K, Llanas-Cornejo D, Cobley JN, Megson IL,
Chahwan R, Husi H
Figures design and editing: Cervantes-Gracia K
Table design and editing: Raja K, Llanas-Cornejo D
Reference list editing: Llanas-Cornejo D, Husi H
Led the study: Husi H

Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.

Financial support and sponsorship
Cervantes-Gracia K is supported by CONACYT Mexico scholarship (No. 2019-000021-01EXTF-00542);
Raja K is supported by the European Union’s INTERREG VA Programme, managed by the Special EU
Programmes Body (SEUPB); Cobley JN and Husi H are supported by a grant from Highlands & Islands
Enterprise.

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.

Copyright
© The Author(s) 2020.

REFERENCES
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2018;9:7204-18.
2. Mittal M, Siddiqui MR, Tran K, Reddy SP, Malik AB. Reactive oxygen species in inflammation and tissue injury. Antioxidants Redox