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Page 12 of 15 Duan et al. Soft Sci. 2025, 5, 4 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.46

Once the measurements and recordings were complete, the data were subjected to analysis. The mean
bladder impedance data obtained from the integrated bladder electronics are presented in Table 1,
accompanied by the mean absolute error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), and correlation
coefficients between the integrated bladder electronics and the commercial equipment. A comparative
analysis of Table 1 and Figure 4D-I reveals that the integrated bladder electronics for wireless real-time
monitoring exhibit a minor design error and can achieve a strong correlation coefficient of 0.96993 in
comparison to the measured data of the commercial equipment. This outcome fulfills the requisite
measurement criteria and serves to substantiate the validity and feasibility of the system. The device
effectively assesses the user’s bladder capacity by collecting signals of changes in bladder impedance, and the
low development cost of the device renders it suitable for general application.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper outlines the development of wireless real-time monitoring electronics for human bladder
capacity, employing biocompatible material synthesis, BIA and multi-module system integration
techniques, aimed at measuring and evaluating bladder impedance and volume changes. The efficacy of this
measurement system in quantifying alterations in human bladder impedance has been experimentally
verified. Consequently, it is capable of accurately reflecting changes in bladder capacity. Compared with the
technical equipment currently in clinical, such as uroflowmetry and US, the device is non-invasive, low-
cost, portable and low-power and provides continuous, real-time bladder filling information, thus keeping
patients informed of their needs and enhancing their control over bladder voiding function. By predicting
the time of urination, it helps patients or their families to prepare in advance and reduce psychological
stress, thus improving the quality of life. However, the implementation of the device in clinical and home
settings faces several challenges that might be addressed. Firstly, hardware miniaturization, while
maintaining performance, remains a significant hurdle, as reducing device size without compromising
functionality or power efficiency is crucial, especially in home settings. To realize a more compact design,
we aim to optimize the circuit board layout and select smaller components to reduce space requirements
and overall device dimensions. Additionally, we will employ flexible printed circuit board (FPCB)
technology, leveraging its flexibility to conserve space and better conform to irregular surfaces and curved
positions. On the software side, the UI needs to be simplified without sacrificing advanced features,
ensuring accessibility for both patients with varying technical expertise and healthcare professionals.
Developing intuitive, adaptive UIs, possibly incorporating voice or gesture controls, could enhance
usability, particularly for users with physical or cognitive impairments. Looking ahead, further research into
advanced microfabrication, energy-efficient algorithms, and AI-driven ubiquitous personalization will be
essential to improve device performance, user engagement, and long-term adherence in both clinical and
home environments. In conclusion, monitoring changes in bladder impedance over time can be employed
to track the progression of bladder-related diseases and treatment effects, facilitate impedance studies of
other important units or organs and tissues in the human body, and contribute to the advancement of
personalized medicine in the future.