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Page 36 of 47 Zhou et al. Soft Sci. 2026, 6, 10

suction-cup patterns; PVDF-HFP: poly(vinylidene fluoride)-hexafluoropropylene; CB@Cotton: carbon black@cotton; 1T-WS 2 @CSilk: 1T phase
tungsten disulfide@carbonized silk; CNF: cellulose nanofiber; PIL: poly(ionic liquid); CNW: cellulose nonwoven; P(VDF-TrFE): poly(vinylidene
fluoride-trifluoroethylene); 3D: three-dimensional; PAM: polyacrylamide; Au@SS: Au-coated stainless steel; CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose;
[EMIM ]Cl : 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride.
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properties of the material system. Poor long-term stability primarily manifests as ion gradient decay and
material interface failure, which may not be evident under low-power operation. High cost becomes an
obstacle during industrialization, typically emerging as a consideration after successful proof-of-concept and
performance validation. Power density is the fundamental prerequisite that determines whether an
energy-harvesting technology can be useful. Only after overcoming this challenge and enabling the device to
generate sufficient electrical energy does addressing long-term stability and reducing costs become practical.
Based on a comprehensive comparison of device output performance in Table 2, structural analysis indicates
that among various design approaches, 3D porous structures constructed from organic-inorganic composite
materials exhibit the greatest potential for breakthrough, compared to 1D yarns and 2D membrane
structures. Organic--inorganic composite systems, through interfacial synergistic effects, retain the
processability and abundant functional groups of polymers while also providing the high conductivity and
mechanical strength of inorganic materials. This represents the most viable technical pathway for
simultaneously overcoming challenges in power, stability, and cost.

Material and device structure designs
For an efficient wet gas power generation system, the power generation layer must satisfy three core criteria:
high hygroscopicity, a significant ion gradient, and stable cycling performance. Material selection should first
ensure a high density of controllable hydrophilic functional groups and the construction of continuous ion
transport channels. Secondly, priority should be given to environmentally friendly, process-compatible
materials to guarantee the reliability of large-scale fabrication and long-term operation. Prolonged exposure
to high humidity and high salt concentrations can induce hydrolysis and oxidation of active functional
groups, reduce material hydrophilicity, and hinder charge separation, resulting in gradual output
degradation and extended recovery times. When the interfacial energy difference between the hydrophilic
power generation layer and the hydrophobic electrode is large, adhesion is weakened, leading to
delamination during wet cycling and reduced charge transfer efficiency. To address these challenges,
heterogeneous micro–nano structures and integrated assembly strategies are employed to achieve conformal
bonding between the power generation layer and electrode interface, while maximizing moisture contact
area. This approach simultaneously enhances interfacial stability and electrical output performance.

Large-scale industrialized manufacturing
Despite the promising prospects of MEGT technology, its transition from laboratory research to mass
production remains constrained by systemic challenges in materials, fabrication processes, and device
integration. First, large-scale fabrication of the power-generating layer remains immature. For example,
spinning techniques often struggle to simultaneously achieve high ionic content, fine fiber diameters, and
sufficient mechanical strength during continuous production . Most existing material systems are limited
[201]
to small-area synthesis, and scalable fabrication methods are frequently cost-prohibitive, impeding industrial
feasibility. Second, in device assembly, processes such as layer-by-layer self-assembly, spraying, and
immersion coating can introduce weak interfacial bonding and inconsistent packaging, leading to
performance fluctuations and reduced long-term stability [32,68] . Furthermore, when devices are integrated into
arrays via series-parallel connections, wire impedance and inter-cell coupling errors accumulate with
increasing scale, further raising system costs and failure risks. Nevertheless, studies have demonstrated that
certain device structures possess significant potential for large-scale integration [34,49] . Future efforts must
prioritize synergistic innovations in material systems, interface engineering, and integration processes to
establish MEGT systems that are high-performance, low-cost, and reproducible. As wearable energy devices,