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Jung et al. Soft Sci 2024;4:15 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2024.02 Page 13 of 44

Table 4. Comparative analysis of MIPs, aptamers, and antibodies as bioaffinity elements
Elements Antibodies Aptamers MIPs
Analyte Small molecules Small molecules Small molecules
Proteins and cells Proteins
Peptides
Target Very high High High
specificity
Stability Low (sensitive to temperature and pH High (variable) High
changes)
Production High Moderate Low
cost
Advantages High specificity and selectivity, broad Chemically stable, facile Highly specificity and reproducibility,
target recognition, commercial modification, high sensitivity and environmental durability, low cost
availability reproducibility
Disadvantages Low stability, limited reusability, Non-specific binding, restricted Relatively low binding performance, cross-
difficulty in modification, protein selection of sequences with good selectivity, leakage of template, challenges with
denaturation, high cost sensitivity large targets (proteins and cells)
Ref. [161] [179] [180]
MIPs: Molecular imprinted polymers.

excluders are employed to minimize competitive coordination between the ionophore and the counter ion
of the analyte. The sensing component, the ionophore, is responsible for ion immobilization, and the redox/
double layer capacitance at the ISM-electrode substrate interface, which is determined by the inherent
characteristics of WE composed of functional materials acting as ion-to-electron transducers, is expected to
demonstrate a stable potentiometric response to changes in ion activity [194,195] .

APPLICATIONS OF WEARABLE ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSOR FOR DIABETES
DM is a global health concern linked to metabolic syndrome, necessitating continuous monitoring of blood
glucose levels for effective diagnosis and management [196,197] . The urgency arises from potential
complications such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, kidney disease, and mortality associated with
+
DM [9-14,198-201] . Regularly assessing biomarkers such as glucose, lactate, ketone, insulin, and electrolytes (Na
and K ) is crucial for a proactive approach to prevent and manage DM and its complications. Non-invasive
+
wearable electrochemical sensors are key in quantifying these biomarkers in easily accessible bodily fluids
[97]
such as sweat, tears, saliva, and ISF . Given the importance of selecting the most suitable biological matrix
for continuous monitoring in DM management, we present a comparative analysis to guide the
development and application of wearable electrochemical sensors. The following table summarizes our
assessment of various biological matrices, highlighting their advantages, disadvantages, suitability for
diabetes management, and relevant references [Table 5]. The non-invasive wearable electrochemical sensors
typically employ a three-electrode system for redox reactions, with a nanotextured WE surface to enhance
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and lower detection limits [89-91,208] . Selectivity is augmented by coating the
nanotextured surface with specific functional groups such as enzymes, antibodies, aptamers, and designed
peptides, along with selecting appropriate voltage potentials for reaction activation [51,209] . Wearable sensing
devices, designed for real-time monitoring of various biomarkers, offer valuable insights into the health
status and fitness levels of DM patients. This summary highlights advancements in designing wearable
electrochemical biosensors for monitoring DM-associated biomarkers in bodily fluids.

Sweat
Sweat plays a crucial role in regulating the body temperature and offers valuable insights into human health
and physiological conditions by continuously excreting non-invasive and biologically relevant biomarkers.
It is a favorable biofluid for non-invasive biosensing of analytes due to its abundant composition of
detectable biomolecules and electrolytes, providing valuable information for DM management.