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how and why the M1 phenotype is down-regulated 2011;17:692-9.
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current and next steps to improve our understanding R. The immunology of acute stroke. Nat Rev Neurol 2012;8:401-10.
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the mechanisms of M1-M2 switch could provide new 13. Candeias SM, Gaipl US. The immune system in cancer prevention,
approach to protect against ischemic neuronal death. development and therapy. Anticancer Agents Med Chem
Properly controlling the transformation of microglia is 2016;16:101-7.
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DECLARATIONS 15. d’Onofrio A. Spatiotemporal effects of a possible chemorepulsion of
tumor cells by immune system effectors. J Theor Biol 2012;296:41-8.
Authors’ contributions 16. Odendall C, Kagan JC. Activation and pathogenic manipulation
Concept and design: Q. Wan of the sensors of the innate immune system. Microbes Infect
2017;19:229-37.
Data analysis, manuscript preparation and editing: 17. Amantea D, Micieli G, Tassorelli C, Cuartero MI, Ballesteros I, Certo
R. Liu M, Moro MA, Lizasoain I, Bagetta G. Rational modulation of the
Literature search: M.X. Pan, J.C. Tang, Y. Zhang, H.B. innate immune system for neuroprotection in ischemic stroke. Front
Liao, Y. Zhuang, D. Zhao Neurosci 2015;9:147.
18. Magnus T, Wiendl H, Kleinschnitz C. Immune mechanisms of stroke.
Financial support and sponsorship Curr Opin Neurol 2012;25:334-40.
None. 19. den Haan JMM, Arens R, van Zelm MC. The activation of the adaptive
immune system: cross-talk between antigen-presenting cells, T cells
and B cells. Immunology Letters 2014;162:103-12.
Conflicts of interest 20. Gu Y, Zhao W, Meng F, Qu B, Zhu X, Sun Y, Shu Y, Xu Q. Sunitinib
There are no conflicts of interest. impairs the proliferation and function of human peripheral T cell and
prevents T-cell-mediated immune response in mice. Clin Immunol
Patient consent 2010;135:55-62.
No patients were involved. 21. Dorrance AM, Fink G. Effects of stroke on the autonomic nervous
system. Compr Physiol 2015;5:1241-63.
Ethics approval 22. Micieli G, Cavallini A. The autonomic nervous system and ischemic
Not applicable. stroke: a reciprocal interdependence. Clin Auton Res 2008;18:308-17.
23. Kanai M, Kubo H, Kitamura Y, Izawa KP, Ono K, Ando H, Nozoe
M, Mase K, Shimada S. Difference in autonomic nervous activity in
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