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Farinha et al. Mini-invasive Surg 2023;7:38 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/2574-1225.2023.50 Page 9 of 14

Table 4. Kane framework

Proposed use (decision) (Type of) Scoring Generalization Extrapolation Implications

Hidalgo Develop and test an in-vivo porcine LPN Use time as a metric in different steps None identified The model enhances the learning experience Participants endorsed application of the
[16]
et al. TM to teach LPN model as an effective surgical educational
tool
Yang Develop and test an ex-vivo porcine LPN Used operation-specific and time metrics None identified Trainees found the model helpful, increased Authors consider the model useful for
[32]
et al. TM to teach LPN Measured learning curve and quality of PN confidence, and improved skills in LPN learning key steps of PN and developing
advanced laparoscopic suture-repairing
skills
Hung Evaluate face, content, and construct Used questionnaires to assess realism and None identified Experts rated the model high in realism and A model appropriate for resident and fellow
[18]
et al. validities of ex-vivo RAPN TM utility as training tools as a training tool for residents and fellows. training
Video recordings were assessed by three Limited training role for expert surgeons
experts
Use time, operation-specific metrics, and
GOALS
Chow Assess validity and effectiveness of an Used time and GEARS None identified Improved skills, shortened the learning curve, Use of this model in a urology residency
[11]
et al. ex-vivo porcine TM Video recorded performances and increased operator confidence curriculum
Blinded assessors
Fernandez Evaluate the materials model for PN Likert-scale to rate quality and realism of None identified Rated as “good” realism PVA-C use was less expensive and entailed
[20]
et al. kidney tumors renal tumor model Participants considered the model helpful in fewer logistic concerns than those
Evaluated operation-specific and time metrics learning to perform LPN associated with the animal model
Evaluated learning curve measuring time Good teaching tool for residents and fellows
to learn technical skills of the LPN
Golab Create individual silicone models for Used time as metrics None identified Improved actual surgery Producing these models brings new
[25]
et al. training LPN Reduced the need for/duration of possibilities for laparoscopic education
intraoperative renal ischemia
Monda Assess face, content, and construct Evaluated usefulness and realism of the model None identified Experts gave high ratings for realism and Novel and economic methods of
[19]
et al. validity of a RAPN training model as a training tool, usefulness manufacturing silicone models
Performance measured using operation- Differentiated surgical performance of Useful for trainees to gain fundamental
specific metrics, NASA-TLX and GEARS groups’ expertise surgical skills in RALPN
Video performance recorded and blinded Evidenced learning curve
assessments by experts
Ghazi Simulation platform for RAPN Used CROMS and GOALS None identified Rated by experts as superior to porcine or The model might lead to widespread use of
[21]
et al. Evaluated realism ratings and training cadaveric models for replication of procedural, patient-specific, individualized
effectiveness procedural steps practice
Excellent at discriminating experts from No need for dedicated teaching robots and
novice performance wet-laboratory facilities
Maddox Develop patient-specific kidney models No scoring. None identified Patients who underwent the preoperative Use of this type of model may decrease the
[26]
et al. for the purpose of pre-surgical resection Compare clinical results between patients surgical model experienced lower estimated slope of the learning curve and improve
and incorporation into simulation labs from the study and similar studies from a blood loss at the time of resection patient outcomes
RAPN database
von Develop patient-specific pre-surgical Compare resection times between the model None identified Improved resection times Can assist in surgical decision-making,
Rundstedt simulation protocol for RALPN and the actual tumor in a patient-specific Similar morphology and tumor volumes when provide preoperative rehearsals, and
[27]
et al. manner compared with the real tumor improve surgical training
Predict feasibility of RALPN within an
acceptable ischemia time