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Yoon et al. Energy Mater 2024;4:400063 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/energymater.2023.146 Page 3 of 30

Table 1. Electrochemical properties of graphite, Si, Sn, and Sb anodes for LIBs, SIBs, and PIBs
Theoretically fully Density Molar mass Molar volume Theoretical capacity Volume change
Anode material discharged -3 -1 3 -1 gravimetric volumetric
phase (g cm ) (g mol ) (cm mol ) (mAh g ) (mAh cm ) (%)
-1
-3
Graphite (C) LiC 2.20 79.0 36 372 841 12.1
6
NaC 64 1.85 791.6 428 35 79 25.8
KC 1.95 135.2 69 279 631 63.1
8
Silicon (Si) Li Si 1.18 58.6 50 4,199 9,786 312.1
4.4
NaSi 1.76 51.1 29 954 2,223 140.8
KSi 1.76 67.2 38 954 2,223 216.7
Tin (Sn) Li Sn 1.92 149.2 78 993 7,259 378.7
4.4
Na 3.75 Sn 2.38 204.9 86 847 6,192 430.2
KSn 3.46 157.8 46 226 1,652 180.8
Antimony (Sb) Li Sb 3.35 142.6 43 660 4,420 134.1
3
Na Sb 2.69 190.7 71 660 4,420 290.7
3
K Sb 2.60 239.1 92 660 4,420 405.7
3

Figure 1. Comparing various anode materials (graphite (C), Si, Sn, and Sb) for LIBs, SIBs, and PIBs. (A) Theoretical gravimetric capacities.
(B) Theoretical volumetric capacities. (C) Volume changes during electrochemical reactions. Parameter values were calculated for
theoretically fully discharged phases (C: LiC , NaC , KC ; Si: Li Si, NaSi, KSi; Sn: Li Sn, Na Sn, KSn; Sb: Li Sb, Na Sb, K Sb).
6 64 8 4.4 4.4 3.75 3 3 3
thereby enhancing cycling stability [40,41] . Second, structural control strategy involves tailoring the
morphology and nanostructure of the Sb material. Techniques such as creating porous structures,
nanoparticles, or nanowires can improve the electrolyte accessibility to the active material and
accommodate volume change during the electrochemical reaction, thereby improving the rate capability
and reducing capacity degradation [42-44] . Third, composite/alloy formation strategy provides high battery
performance by incorporating other elements that can improve the electrical conductivity of Sb anodes and
enhance their mechanical stability by suppressing volume change [45-54] . Other improvement strategies,
including using protective layers [55,56] and highly conductive additives [57,58] , are also available. Unfortunately,
the abovementioned improvements only provide temporary performance enhancements, and their abuse
can result in undesirable side reactions that degrade performance. On the other hand, binder optimization
undeniably improves performance by enhancing the mechanical strength of the active material and its
[59]
adhesion to the current collector . However, the binder does not directly participate in electrochemical
reactions; therefore, the three key-point strategies discussed above are directly related to the electrochemical
reaction and significantly affect performance improvement. This review presents recent breakthroughs in
Sb-based anodes for AIBs and ASSLIBs reported over the past five years (2018-2023).