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to provide a more accurate representation of cost implications. Moreover, the study’s scope did not extend
to the end-of-life management of batteries, including recycling and disposal, which are critical factors in the
overall environmental and economic assessment of LDLV electrification. The omission of these aspects may
underestimate the long-term costs and environmental burdens associated with battery usage in LDLVs.
Despite these limitations, our study provides a robust foundation for understanding LDLV electrification in
Northern China and offers valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study, and performed data analysis and
interpretation: Hao X, Zhou D
Performed data acquisition and analysis: Zhong R, Li S
Provided crucial input in refining the study’s assumptions and enhancing the methodology: Meng X
Provided administrative, technical, and material support, and substantively revised the work: Liu B
All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon
reasonable request.

Financial support and sponsorship
This study was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFB2503504), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China for Young Scholars (72304031), and Fundamental Research Funds for
the Central Universities in China (FRF-TP-22-024A1). The funders had no role in study design, data
collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest
Meng X is affiliated with China Automotive Technology and Research Center Co., Ltd. The authors
declared that this affiliation does not influence the research. The other authors have declared that they have
no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.

Copyright
© The Author(s) 2024.

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