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Figure 4. Prediction of MAC fleet carbon emissions under different refrigerant options.
Figure 5. LCCA results of EV heat pump with different refrigerants.
air conditioning is comparable to those using R134a, but the higher refrigerant cost of R1234yf results in
slightly higher CapEx than R134a. The R744 heat pump system registers the highest NPV cost, attributed to
significantly higher component costs than other systems. Furthermore, the lower efficiency of the R744
system under national average conditions contributes to higher OpEx. Figure 6B illustrates the NPV of local
lifecycle costs for different refrigerant electric vehicle air conditionings in seven major geographical regions
in China. It is evident that the R290 heat pump has the lowest local life cycle cost in most geographical
