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Zhao et al. Microstructures 2023;3:2023002 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/microstructures.2022.21 Page 9 of 11

[Figure 8B]. In general, the W calculated by the I-t curve is always lower than that calculated by the P-E
d
loop because the characterization mechanisms with different measurement frequencies and dielectric
[1]
[41]
material losses differ . The τ of the 0.60BT-0.40NN ceramics is ~39 ns [Figure 8B]. The ultrafast
0.9
discharge rate comes from the low hysteresis polarization response and the relaxor characteristic. This
makes the 0.60BT-0.40NN ceramics more competitive in high-power applications [38,42] . Moreover, the
undamped pulsed discharge current curves at 25 °C under various E values are displayed in Figure 8C. From
the current curves, we can calculate the current density (C ) and power density (P ) from C = I /S and P
D
D
max
D
D
= EI /2S, where I and S represent the maximum value of the undamped pulsed discharge current curves
max
max
and the electrode area, respectively . The C and P of the 0.60BT-0.40NN ceramics at 25 MV m are 801
[26]
-1
D
D
-2
-3
A cm and 100 MW cm , respectively [Figure 8D]. More importantly, from the undamped pulsed discharge
current curves at 20 MV m under various temperatures [Figure 8E], it can be found that the variations of C
-1
and P are ~15% from 25 to 140 °C [Figure 8F], which suggests that the 0.60BT-0.40NN ceramics have
D D
significant potential for pulsed power system applications.
CONCLUSIONS
In summary, the 0.60BT-0.40NN ceramics with relaxor ferroelectric characteristics have an optimal W of
d
3.07 J cm , a high η of 92.6%, a high P of 100 MW cm and an ultrafast τ of 39 ns. Moreover, they exhibit
-3
-3
D
0.9
stable energy storage properties in terms of frequency (0.1-100 Hz), fatigue (10 cycles) and temperature
6
(25-120 °C), as well as temperature-stable power density (25-140 °C). These ideal energy storage properties
and pulsed discharge behavior make the 0.60BT-0.40NN ceramics more promising for high-stability energy
storage MLCCs in pulsed power system applications.
DECLARATIONS
Author’s contributions
Sample fabrication and characterization: Zhao P
Data analysis and interpretation: Li L, Wang X
Preparation of the manuscript and discussion: Zhao P, Li L, Wang X
Availability of data and materials
Data can be deposited into data repositories or published as supplementary information in the journal.
Financial support and sponsorship
This work was supported by Shuimu Tsinghua Scholar Program, Key-Area Research and Development
Program of Guandong Province (No. 2019B090912003), National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 52032005), High-end MLCC Key Project Supported by Guangdong Fenghua Advanced Technology
Holding Co., Ltd.

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.