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Chang et al. Soft Sci. 2026, 6, 29 Page 9 of 26

Table 2. Sensing technologies for muscle health monitoring
Response Detection Limit of Technological Current
Sensor type Target signal Detection principle Sensitivity Main advantages Comfort References
time range detection maturity limitations
Electrode
Real-time analysis; placement
Bioelectrical sEMG Bioelectrical signal NA NA NA NA High High temporal sensitivity; Medium [74]
sensors acquisition resolution; Motion artifacts;
Non-invasiveness
Cross-talk
Energy Real-time analysis; Low integration;
metabolism Lactic Enzyme-based ~ 644.2 1 min 0-30 mM 1 mM Medium Non-invasiveness; Lab validation High [75]
biomarkers acid electrochemical sensing nA/mM Ease to use only
Real-time analysis; Fabrication
Colorimetry ~ 12.3 /decade NA 0-100 mM 1.5 mM High High [76]
Ease to use complexity
Enzyme-based ~ 60 Lab validation
Urea 5 min 0-200 mM 5 mM Low Ease to use Medium [77]
electrochemical sensing mV/decade only
Lab validation
Colorimetry ~ 30 /decade 4 min 0-30 mM 5 mM Low Multiplex detection Medium [78]
only
Specialized
Biochemical Muscle injury Mb Immunochromatography ~ 0.001 5 min 0-1000 0.05 ng/mL Low Multiplex detection; equipment Low [79]
sensors biomarkers /(ng/mL) ng/mL High sensitivity dependence; Lab
validation only
Architecture
~ 0.023 0-1 × 10 4 Self-powered;
Electrochemical transduction 1 min 0.011 ng/mL Low complexity; Lab Low [80]
V/decade ng/mL Ultra-sensitivity
validation only
Specialized
~ 0.014 0-250 0.063 Multiplex detection; equipment
CK Immunochromatography 5 min Medium Low [79]
/(ng/mL) ng/mL ng/mL High sensitivity dependence; Lab
validation only
Cascade reaction
Enzyme -based dependent;
electrochemical glucose ~ 0.0147 5 min 0-0.5 U/mL 0.00147 Low Label-free; Ease to use Indirect NA [81]
sensing /(U/mL) U/mL detection; Lab
validation only
Inflammatory Aptamer-based ~ 0.62 Multiplex detection; Fabrication
biomarkers IL-6 electrochemical sensor /(ng/mL) 1 min 0-30 ng/mL 1.3 ng/mL Medium Clinical validation complexity Medium [82]
Narrow range;
~ 0.006 Label-free; Simple
Colorimetry 5 min 0-125 μg/mL 1.95 μg/mL Low Lab validation NA [83]
/(μg/mL) readout
only
Aptamer-based ~ 0.12 Multiplex detection; Fabrication
TGF-β 1 min 0-150 pg/mL 6.0 pg/mL Medium Medium [82]
electrochemical sensor /(pg/mL) Clinical validation complexity