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Chen et al. Soft Sci. 2026, 6, 3 Page 13 of 26

Figure 3. Small-scale magnetic soft robots for clinical applications in the urinary and reproductive systems. (A) Schematics and
experimental demonstration of magnetic millirobots with switchable locomotion modes, including woodlouse-like rolling, flipping, snake-
like gliding, and sperm-like rotation, designed to actively traverse complex anatomical barriers such as platforms, folds, and narrow
channels in the oviduct for targeted drug delivery [186] . Copyright 2024 American Chemical Society; (B) Conceptual illustration of magnetic
soft robots actuated by external magnetic fields to mechanically disrupt and remove biofilms from urethral catheter surfaces, reducing the
risk of infection and device failure [187] . Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society; (C) Design of a magnetically actuated soft robotic
bladder-assisted urination, constructed from silicone elastomer embedded with magnetic particles, intended to generate contractile force
on demand to facilitate urination in cases of an underactive bladder [189] . Copyright 2022 American Association for the Advancement of
Science.

tissue sampling in ex vivo porcine ureter models, showcasing the synergy between smart materials and
wireless control in confined environments. In addition, magnetic soft robots have been engineered as
assistive devices to address lower urinary tract dysfunctions. For underactive bladder management, a soft
robot composed of silicone elastomer embedded with NdFeB particles generates torque and compression
upon external activation, mimicking detrusor contractions [189] . During bladder filling, the device passively
conforms to bladder expansion, thereby preserving native bladder mechanics. A hydrogel coating reduces
mechanical friction and improves surface biocompatibility. Upon actuation, the device produces sufficient
intravesical pressure for controlled voiding, illustrating a non-pharmacological and organ-conforming
approach to bladder assistance [Figure 3C].

Vascular system
The vascular system is composed of a complex network of arteries, veins, and capillaries, each exhibiting
distinct anatomical features, including variations in diameter, curvature, branching architecture, and wall
elasticity. These features range from large, elastic arteries to capillaries with submillimetre lumens, presenting
considerable challenges for therapeutic intervention. Clinically, vascular pathologies such as atherosclerosis,
thrombosis, aneurysms, and ischemic stroke remain leading contributors to morbidity and mortality
worldwide. Conventional treatment modalities, including catheter-based drug delivery, mechanical
thrombectomy, and stent placement, exhibit efficacy in specific scenarios but are often constrained by