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Chen et al. Soft Sci. 2026, 6, 3 Page 9 of 26

Table 2. Summary of representative works in terms of different organ systems
Environmental Magnetic field In vivo
Organ system Typical materials Robot size Actuation method Performance metrics Ref.
characteristics strength model
Elastic modulus: 1-10 kPa;
Intestine: 20-40 kPa
Intestine diameter: 2.5-3.8 cm
Gastrointestinal tract Ecoflex/PDMS + NdFeB Sub-millimeter Magnetic torque 50 mT NA NA [60]
pH: Esophagus: 5-7
Stomach: 1-4
Intestine: 6.5-7
PDMS + NdFeB Centimeter Magnetic torque 30 mT Delivery volume: 121.6 mm 3 Rabbit [176]
pH ranges from 1 to 8
Ecoflex + NdFeB Millimeter Magnetic torque 30 mT Mouse [177]
Viscoelasticity ranges from 0.5 to 11.3 kPa
Bladder tissue’s Young’s
modulus: 315.05 ± 49.64 kPa
Urinary and horizontally and 283.62 ± Ex vivo pig’s
reproductive systems 57.04 kPa vertically Ecoflex/Hydrogel + NdFeB Millimeter Magnetic torque 3 mT Drug release time of 14 ± 2 s oviduct [186]
Diameter of the oviduct: 1-4
mm
The efficiency toward the biofilm
Silicone elastomer + Co
nanowire Millimeter Magnetic torque 10 mT elimination (97.22 ± 6.15% for P. NA [187]
aureginosa and 78.27 ± 8% for S.aureus)
Magnetic torque and A 100 mm cubic
Ecoflex + NdFeB Centimeter Pressurize bladder ~ 37 cmH 2 O to voiding Porcine [189]
magnetic force permanent magnet
Diameters: 1-4 mm Anchored securely against flows up to
Dynamic viscosity: 4.4 cP Magnetic torque and A 50 mm cubic 260 mm/s
Vascular system Average flow speed: 11.3 cm/s PDMS + NdFeB Millimeter magnetic force permanent magnet Achieved ~ 0.18 mm/s under pulsatile NA [77]
to 25.5 cm/s flow
Young’s modulus: 1-3 MPa
Millimeter Magnetic force 40 to 230 mT Effectively remove thrombus Rabbit [128]
Silicone oil + Fe 3 O 4
Demonstrated flow resistance up to 200
mm/s
Achieved 0.32 mm/s (upstream) and 1.75
Thermoplastic elastomer + Magnetic torque and
NdFeB Millimeter magnetic force 40 mT mm/s (downstream) against 100 mm/s Rabbit [78]
flow
The formed thrombus can resist a
pressure of up to 22 kPa
NA: Not available.