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However, long time would elapse before researchers who were native speakers of Italian, to test the
started to use TMS not only for basic research on hypothesis of exciting underactive reading pathways
dyslexia but also for clinical applications. in dyslexics. [56] They conducted 5-Hz TMS over both
the left and the right inferior parietal lobules and
TMS as clinical intervention technique the superior temporal gyrus (note that these areas
Within TMS protocols, Frye et al. were the first to had previously been found to improve reading in a
[56]
hypothesize that high-frequency repetitive TMS could TMS study on nondyslexics [59] ) in advance of reading
improve reading performance in people suffering from words, nonwords, and text aloud. The results of the
dyslexia by exciting underactive reading pathways in the study showed that on the one hand, high-frequency
brain. Previous neuroscientific research had shown that rTMS stimulation over the left inferior parietal lobule
an improvement in reading in dyslexics was mediated led to a better performance in nonword reading;
by an increase in the activations of typically hypoactive that is, the individuals with dyslexia made fewer
left-hemisphere areas (also referred to as “normalization”) errors. On the other hand, high-frequency rTMS
and by additional activation in the right hemisphere stimulation over the left superior temporal gyrus
regions (also referred to as “compensation”). [57] resulted in faster word reading and better text reading.
Interestingly, after the right inferior parietal lobule
Costanzo et al. [58] conducted an intriguing study had been stimulated, the performances for nonword
with high-frequency rTMS on 10 dyslexic adults, reading also increased. This intriguing study led

a

b
Figure 2: (a) One direction for future research aims to investigate the clinical usefulness of the rapid‑rate transcranial magnetic stimulation intervention technique for
treating individuals with dyslexia; (b) The second direction for future research aims to investigate the underlying neural working mechanisms (by using simultaneous
electroencephalographic and transcranial magnetic stimulation) behind the rapid‑rate transcranial magnetic stimulation intervention technique for treating individuals
with dyslexia

150 Neuroimmunol Neuroinflammation | Volume 2 | Issue 3 | July 15, 2015 Neuroimmunol Neuroinflammation | Volume 2 | Issue 3 | July 15, 2015 151