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Aydin et al. J Transl Genet Genom. 2025;9:406-26 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/jtgg.2025.108 Page 418

Figure 4. Predicted binding affinities of ligands - including hub inhibitors, the clinically used DMD-specific drug vamolorone, and
repositioned drugs - were assessed by molecular docking analysis. Each drug is represented by a different color. Binding energies were
calculated using CB-Dock, with more negative values indicating stronger predicted ligand-protein interactions. Each point represents
the docking score for a specific hub protein - ligand pair. The Y-axis shows the most central network biomarkers identified through
integrated PPI, TF, and miRNA network analyses, representing key regulatory molecules implicated in DMD pathogenesis. The X-axis
lists the same hub proteins. DMD: Duchenne muscular dystrophy; PPI: protein-protein interaction; CB-Dock: cavity-detecting blind
docking.

apigenin reduced oxidative damage biomarkers, such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid
peroxidation, in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD), another muscular dystrophy
disorder . In addition, it reduces inflammatory processes by lowering pro-inflammatory cytokine
[103]
levels .
[104]
Celastrol (tripterine) is a compound obtained from the Tripterygium wilfordii (Thunder God Vine) plant
and is widely used in Chinese medicine. It has anti-inflammatory properties and has shown potential as a
drug in many autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE), allergy, inflammatory bowel disease, ankylosing spondylitis, osteoarthritis [105-107] , and metabolic
diseases such as obesity and diabetes . Celastrol has also been studied in leukemia, glioma, and prostate
[108]
cancer, as it prevents tumor cell proliferation through its anticancer properties by inhibiting the NF-κB
pathway via limiting IκBα degradation, blocking p65 translocation, and reducing MMP-9 production [105,109] .
Celastrol induces heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70), an important chaperone protein involved in
[110]
cytoprotection, protein folding, and repair in non-muscle cells . It has also been studied for
neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases. The effect of celastrol on
Parkinson’s disease was investigated using the Drosophila DJ-1A model, and it was found to boost