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Xia et al. Energy Mater. 2026, 6, 600022 Page 11 of 13

Supplementary Materials [1-90]}. Notably, previously reported high-efficiency Sb S devices predominantly
2 3
employ unstable organic hole-transport layers (e.g., Spiro-OMeTAD or P3HT) and cost-prohibitive Au
electrodes, fundamentally limiting their practical viability. In contrast, our approach leverages ambient
air-annealing and low-cost carbon electrodes to construct an all-inorganic device, which exhibits the
competitive efficiency approaching the current Sb S record. Based on the enhanced operational stability
2 3
from inorganic constituents and scalable manufacturability via solution-processable components , this
[26]
work establishes a transformative pathway toward economically viable, high-performance thin-film solar
cells.

CONCLUSION
In this work, we aimed to address the critical challenges of sulfur volatilization and detrimental Sb O 3
2
formation at the back interface of Sb S solar cells during high-temperature annealing. By introducing an
2 3
ultrathin ZnO protective layer, we developed a dual-functional strategy that simultaneously achieves
controlled oxygen passivation and effective Zn doping. This synergistic modification suppresses interfacial
recombination, optimizes energy level alignment, and enhances carrier transport. Ultimately, in comparison
with unmodified devices, the ZnO-modified solar cells exhibit a 17% enhancement in J and a significant
sc
improvement in PCE, culminating in a state-of-the-art PCE of 7.00% for fully inorganic, carbon-based
architectures. This scalable and air-processable strategy provides a promising route toward
high-performance, stable, and low-cost Sb S solar cells.
2 3

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Idea conception: Chen, G. L.
Writing - original draft: Xia, Y. S.
Writing - editing: Chen, S.; Huang, Z. P.; Li, H.; Lin, L. M.; Xia, Y. S.
Materials characterization: Zhang, J. C.; Cai, J. R.; Huang, G.; Xia, Y. S.
Samples synthesis: Huang, J.; Liu, L. J.; Chen, S.; Xia, Y. S.
Funding acquisition, supervision: Chen, G. L.
All authors participated in the data analysis and result discussions and commented on the manuscript.

Availability of data and materials
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable
request.

AI and AI-assisted tools statement
Not applicable.

Financial support and sponsorship
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 62475044;
62204041), Natural Science Foundation of Fujian Province (Grant Nos. 2025J010031; 2025H6009;
2023I0012).

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.

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