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Page 4 of 14 Liu et al. Chem Synth 2023;3:24 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cs.2023.13

For the durability tests, the equivalent of pure FA (3.0 mmol) was injected into the reaction mixture after
the first dehydrogenation of FA. The resulting gas was determined by the displacement of water in the
cylinder. Such a recycling process was repeated another 3 times at 298 K.

The conversion of FA (x ) was obtained by the equation (1):
a

Where P is the atmospheric pressure (101325 Pa), V refers to the volume of final released gas (CO +
2
gas
atm
-1
-1
H ), R denotes the universal gas constant (8.3145 m ·Pa·mol ·K ), T represents the room temperature (298
3
2
K), and n corresponds to the mole number of FA.
FA
The TOF values were calculated by equation (2):

Where TOF initial refers to the initial turnover frequency when the conversion x is 20 %, n metal is the total
a
molar number of Pd in catalyst, and t represents the reaction time when x is 20 %. When the final reaction
a
conversion is lower than 20 %, the TOF initial is based on the final conversion, which will be specified in the
text.

Characterizations
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM),
high angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) and energy-
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis were carried out using JEOL JEM-2100 and Talos-F200X. The
X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were acquired on a D/Max-3c (Rigaku) X-ray diffractometer by using Cu
Kα radiation source (λ = 1.5406 Å). X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) was carried out on a Thermo
Fisher Scientific ESCALAB Xi+ spectrometer with an Al Kα radiator. Fourier infrared spectrum (FTIR)
spectra were performed on Thermo Fisher Scientific Nicolet iS50 FTIR Spectrometer. The content of Pd in
the catalysts was determined by a NexION 350D inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
(ICP-MS). The Raman spectra were carried out on HR800 from HORIBA Jobin Yvon company. The
contact angle measurements were performed using a DSA100 contact angle meter from KRUSS company.
The composition of released gas from FA dehydrogenation was detected by a North Point NP-GC-901A gas
chromatograph (GC) with a TCD and FID. A Micromeritics ASAP 2020 Plus was used to obtain nitrogen
(N ) sorption isotherms of catalysts. Raman measurements were carried out on a HR800 Raman
2
spectrometer with a 633 nm laser excitation.