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GHGs. A trade-off analysis deserves to be further conducted to balance urban food security and
environmental sustainability.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Collected data, developed the LCA model, performed data analysis, and developed the original draft: Cheng
Y
Designed this study and developed the original draft: Song G
Contributed to the generation of figures: Liu X
Revised and commented the manuscript: Batlle-Bayer L, Fullana-i-Palmer P
Reviewed and edited the manuscript: Cheng Y, Song G, Liu X, Batlle-Bayer L, Fullana-i-Palmer P

Availability of data and materials
All data were available in the Supplementary Material.

Financial support and sponsorship
The study is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52270176).
Authors Fullana-i-Palmer P and Batlle-Bayer L are grateful for the funding of their sustainable food research
line by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Competitiveness through the KAIROS-BIOCIR Project
PID2019-104925RB (AEO/FEDER, UE).

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable

Copyright
© The Author(s) 2024.

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