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Page 12 of 20 Choi et al. Cancer Drug Resist. 2026;9:12

Table 2. Summary of in vivo and ex vivo US-modulated glymphatic transport studies
Ref. Model Protocol US parameters Observation

Anesthetized (isoflurane) [MB] - None
› ICM inj. of MRI contrast agent [Transducer] • Increased uptake into brain parenchyma by 72%-101%
› Pre-US MRI • Focused • Increased residual tracer at 3 h p.i.
› Transcranial US (hair removed; whole brain) • Fc: 650 kHz
› Post-US MRI (up to 4 h p.i.; 7T, T1w) • FWHM: 2.78 × 12 mm
Aryal et • Rats (male, Long-Evans)
al. [38] • Normal [Sonication] [FL dye: ~1.5 kDa]
Anesthetized (isoflurane) • MI: 0.25 • Higher concentration in brain parenchyma at 1 h p.i.
› ICM inj. of FL-labeled agents (Alexa Fluor 555) • PNP: 0.2 MPa [FL-conjugated antibody: ~155 kDa]
› Transcranial US (hair removed; whole brain) • Duty cycle: 7.7% • Increased influx into PVS (peak at 1 h p.i.)
› Ex vivo FL micro. (euthanized, tissue fixed, frozen-sectioned) • Duration:10 min
• Scan area: 8 × 10 mm • No influx into brain parenchyma
IV inj. of MBs [MB]
Meng et • Human › US treatment • Commercial • Reversible BBB opening in all cases
al. [66] • AD, ALS › IV inj. of MRI contrast agent [Transducer] • Enhanced contrast in SAS adjacent to sonicated regions
› MRI (0, 24 h p.t.; 3T, T1w/FLAIR) • Fc: 220 kHz
Anesthetized (isoflurane)
› IN inst. of FL-labeled tracer (Alexa Fluor 555; 24 μL) [MB] 79
› IV inj. of MB (30 min p.inst.) • Commercial • Increased tracer accumulation (1.49× higher FL signal)
› US treatment (hair removed; one side of thalamus) • Dose: 10 μL/kg • Enhanced tracer transport in PVS between vessel wall and astrocytic endfeet
› IV inj. of lectin [Transducer] • Arteriole-dominant distribution: 8.75×/5.86× higher FL signal in
• Mice (female, NIH Swiss) › Ex vivo FL imaging (euthanized at 15 min p.t., perfused, brain • Focused arterioles/capillaries, with no significant difference in venules
Ye et al. [63] sectioned) • Fc: 1.5 MHz • Increased influx from PVS to IS
• Normal
› Ex vivo confocal micro. (optically cleared, immuno-stained: [Sonication]
lectin/αSMA/GFAP) • P: 0.4 MPa
• Pulse length: 6.7 ms
Only changes: • PRF: 5 Hz • Increased tracer accumulation (1.74× higher FL)
› ICM inj. of tracer (5 μL) • Duration: 60 s • Arteriole-dominant distribution: 3.49×/2.16×/2.21× higher FL in
arterioles/capillaries/venules