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Kim et al. Soft Sci 2023;3:16 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ss.2023.07 Page 3 of 30

Figure 1. Diagram of the application of flexible, stretchable, 3D structures for MEMS (Top: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [147] .
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Copyright 2019. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Bottom: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [55] . Copyright
2020. American Association for the Advancement of Science), LED & photodetector (Right: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [161] .
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Copyright 2019. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Left: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [159] . Copyright 2021.
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Springer Nature), energy devices (Top: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [177] . Copyright 2021. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
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KGaA, Weinheim. Bottom: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [174] . Copyright 2022. American Chemical Society), biomedical
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devices (Top: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [191] . Copyright 2019. American Association for the Advancement of Science.
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Bottom: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [196] . Copyright 2021. American Association for the Advancement of Science), sensors
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(Top: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [205] . Copyright 2019. American Chemical Society, Bottom: Reproduced with permission
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from Ref. [208] . Copyright 2020. American Association for the Advancement of Science), actuators (Top: Reproduced with permission
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from Ref. [219] . Copyright 2022. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Bottom: Reproduced with permission from
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Ref. [221] . Copyright 2022. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim), metamaterials (Top: Reproduced with permission from
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Ref. [57] . Copyright 2022. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Bottom: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [56] .
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Copyright 2021. Springer Nature), and microfluidic systems (Top: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [236] . Copyright 2011.
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WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. Bottom: Reproduced with permission from Ref. [237] . Copyright 2022. American
Chemical Society).
the challenges and opportunities of flexible/stretchable devices with 3D structures are discussed.
Manufacturing method for 3D structures
There is a need for innovative hardware fabrication concepts or platforms in order to realize highly
functional flexible/stretchable devices composed of 3D structures with feature sizes from the micro to the
macroscale. In this regard, several efforts have been made to fabricate 3D structures to create extremely high