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Page 12 of 19 Son et al. Microbiome Res Rep. 2025;4:29 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/mrr.2025.14

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Table 4. Changes in jejunal mucosal immunity and oxidative stress in nursery pigs challenged with F18 E. coli
1
Change (Δ%)
Ref. Inoculation BW (kg) Inoculation age (d) Days post inoculation (d)
TNF-α IL-6 IL-8 IgA IgG MDA Protein carbonyl
[23] *
Duarte and Kim NA 28 21 13.9 - - - - - 36.1
[27]
Garavito-Duarte et al. 6.3 28 21 –22.3 –9.1 –2.1 –6.6 –12.1 –2.4 27.6
[28]
Gormley et al. 6.4 28 21 –8.9 –43.2 11.5 2.9 5.4 35.3 24.2
[31] *
Deng et al. 6.6 28 18 –8.2 –18.9 –27.3 –11.2 - 17.0 2.9
[9] *
Duarte et al. 6.9 28 21 26.7 - - - - - 67.9
[30] *
Xu et al. 7.1 28 21 12.5 –6.7 83.3 42.4 24.7 –1.4 47.4
[29]
Jang et al. 7.2 28 21 42.7 - –2.8 18.5 60.7 41.9 66.5
[36] * *
Duarte et al. 8.2 28 13 10.4 45.3 3.0 - - 215.4 7.6
[37] *
Duarte et al. 8.2 NA 21 17.1 - 10.8 - - 87.4 10.4
[19] *
Sun et al. 8.3 34 12 64.8 - - - - 12.1 -
3
Number of studies 2 Average change (Δ%)
TNF-α IL-6 IL-8 IgA IgG MDA Protein carbonyl TNF-α IL-6 IL-8 IgA IgG MDA Protein carbonyl
10 5 7 5 4 8 9 14.9 –6.5 10.9 9.2 19.7 50.7 32.3

1 2
Percentage changes in immune and oxidative responses were calculated by comparing the positive control (E. coli-challenged group) with the negative control (non-challenged group). Number of studies used to
3 *
calculate the average change in each indicator. The average change was calculated as the arithmetic mean. P < 0.05. E. coli: Escherichia coli; BW: body weight; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL-6: interleukin-6;
IL-8: interleukin-8; IgA: immunoglobulin A; IgG: immunoglobulin G; MDA: malondialdehyde; NA: not available.

Regarding IL-6, the F18 E. coli challenge does not consistently increase IL-6 levels in the jejunal mucosa of pigs. Among the relevant studies [27,28,30,31,36] , the study
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by Duarte et al. reported an increase in IL-6 . This inconsistency may be attributed to differences in the timing of post-inoculation sampling (13 vs. 18 or 21
[36]
days). IL-6 typically rises and falls earlier than IL-8 in response to infection . Although both cytokines are regulated via similar pathways involving NF-κB,
[102]
IL-8 gene expression involves more complex regulatory mechanisms than IL-6 .
[103]

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Across the studies using F18 E. coli challenge models, malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyl levels in the jejunal mucosa increased by an average of
50.7% and 32.3%, respectively [9,19,23,27-31,36,37] . These elevated levels serve as markers of both host defense and oxidative damage. ROS generated during the
immune response oxidize lipids and amino acids in both host and bacterial cells . F18 E. coli, along with inflammatory cytokines, activates immune cells
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[104]
such as neutrophils and macrophages, which produce ROS . These ROS eliminate pathogens by oxidizing their cellular components, generating MDA and
[105]
protein carbonyl as by-products . However, ROS also oxidize host cell components, leading to structural damage, reduced VH, and compromised intestinal
[106]
integrity .
[107]