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medicine approaches to use molecule inhibitors targeted at these lesions. Racial/ethnic categories in
epidemiologic studies also capture, albeit imperfectly, the influence from bias, racial discrimination, culture,
[60]
socioeconomic status, access to care, and environmental factors . In this review, we recognize that these
non-genetic factors are associated with the disparities in ALL risk and survival. Improving survival in
Hispanic/Latino and Black patients with ALL will require both improved access to care and inclusion of
more diverse populations in future clinical trials and genetic studies.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Researched the literature and prepared the paper: Xu K, de Smith AJ
Made substantial contributions to the discussion of content and reviewing/editing of the manuscript before
submission: Xu K, Feng Q, Wiemels JL, de Smith AJ

Availability of data and materials
NHGRI-EBI GWAS Catalog data are available at https://www.ebi.ac.uk/gwas/docs/file-downloads. Genetic
variants associated with ALL risk and outcomes illustrated in the PhenoGram plots [Figure 2] are available
at: https://github.com/XUKEREN/jtgg_data.

Financial support and sponsorship
This work was supported by start-up funds provided by the Center for Genetic Epidemiology at the Keck
School of Medicine of the University of Southern California (USC) (A.J.D.).

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.

Copyright
© The author(s) 2021.

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