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Rehman et al. Energy Mater 2024;4:400068 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/energymater.2024.06 Page 7 of 64

Figure 1. (A) Schematic illustration of the uniquely designed amorphous tin oxide using oblique angle deposition methodology, (B) SEM
image, (C) cyclic performance, and (D) rate performance of the synthesized amorphous tin oxide nano-helices. Reproduced with
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permission from . Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society.

Han et al. have reported an intriguing structure wherein ultrafine SnO nanoparticles are encapsulated into
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the inner space of holey CNTs by taking advantage of the melt infiltration method . Holey CNTs provided
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a conductive network and ample void spaces for sodium-ion transportation useful for accommodating
volume variations during the charging/discharging process. As an SIB anode, the material delivered a
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reversible discharge capacity of 184 mAh g at a discharge current density of 1,000 mAh g over 200 cycles.
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Narsimulu et al. have used a one-step solvothermal method to prepare a freestanding, flexible, and
binderless 3D porous nanocomposite of SnO onto a conductive carbon cloth . The distinctive
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morphology [Figure 2A] of the 3D composite demonstrated good reversibility and excellent rate
performance when employed as an anode for SIBs [Figure 2B]. The 3D hollow fiber structure and spaces
between the SnO -NPs can accommodate undesirable volume changes during the charging/discharging
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process. The structural integrity is maintained due to bonding between SnO and carbon cloth. Moreover,
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the excellent conductivity and ultra-small nature of SnO nanoparticles enable quick ion electron diffusion
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passages. The composite displayed a high sodium storage capacity of 498 mAh g at a current density of
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0.2 A g and 205 mAh g at 0.2 A g over 100 cycles, while a rate capacity was also ensured by the flexible
unique morphology [Figure 2C]. Chen et al. have optimized and designed an in-situ hydrothermally
architecture nanosized SnO anchored onto MXene sheets that entrust abundant active sites on the
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conductive MXene substrate, resulting in an outstanding rate capability and superior cyclic stability . The
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composition could reversibly sustain 414.3 mAh g of capacity over 100 cycles at 400 mA g .
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Tin-based sulfides
Many tin sulfides have been sorted as potential SIB anode materials due to their fascinating features,
including high capacity, good electrical conductivity, mechanical endurance, and cost-effectiveness. The
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unique layered structure of tin sulfides, such as hexagonal SnS and orthorhombic SnS, offers more Na
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