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Song et al. Energy Mater. 2026, 6, 600019 Page 3 of 22

Figure 1. (A) Annual number of objects (CubeSat, satellite, etc.) launched into outer space [10] , reproduced under a Creative Commons
license. (B) Increasing number of journal publications on PSCs and space-related PSCs, retrieved from the Web of Science on 15
September. (C) Number of journal publications for selected keyword combinations retrieved from the Web of Science on 15 September:
PSCs + Radiation, PSCs + Lightweight, and PSCs + Thermal cycling.

Tolerance to protons, electrons and gamma radiation
Empirical studies have shown that PSCs maintain high performance under proton, electron, and gamma
irradiation. Miyazawa et al. reported that Formamidinium Methylammonium Lead Iodide-Bromide
(FAMAPb(IBr) ) PSCs subjected to 50 keV protons at fluences up to 1 × 10 p cm exhibited only modest
-2
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3
performance degradation , whereas Si , Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) , and GaAs solar
[28]
[30]
[29]
[31]
cells showed significant degradation under comparable conditions. Similarly, they reported that
Poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT)- Methylammonium Lead Iodide (MAPbI )PSCs exposed to 1 MeV electron
3
irradiation at fluences of 1 × 10 e cm retained 92% of their initial PCE, compared to 60% retention for Si
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solar cells . Even at higher-energy proton irradiation (~68 MeV), PSCs exhibited minimal external
[32]
quantum efficiency (EQE) degradation and no observable PbI formation, indicating limited structural
2
damage. Perovskites have also demonstrated robustness under gamma irradiation. Studies have shown that
PSCs maintain excellent performance up to 1,000 kilorad (kRad) - equivalent to approximately 20 years of
cumulative LEO exposure . Boldyreva et al. showed negligible MAPbI degradation, attributing most losses
[33]
3
to substrate darkening rather than active layer deterioration and reported reversible decomposition related to
volatile species release [33] . All-inorganic perovskites such as CsPbI and CsPbBr showed no
3
3
photoluminescence (PL) degradation under gamma radiation doses up to 500 kRad. The lack of PbI 2
formation is attributed to the absence of volatile organic components. These findings confirm the
sustainability of PSCs for LEO regions exposed to intense proton and electron flux including the South
Atlantic Anomaly and polar orbits .
[34]
While systematic investigations are still limited, several routes to enhanced radiation tolerance have emerged.
Mixed-halide perovskites (FA Cs Pb I Br Cl , where FA = formamidinium) showed defect formation
0.8
0.02
0.6
0.2
1.02 2.4
dependent on proton energy, followed by performance recovery via lattice self-healing under dark
conditions, with radiative recombination remaining dominant over nonradiative pathways . All-inorganic
[35]
vacancy-ordered double perovskites Cs CrI have also shown remarkable robustness, retaining 90% of initial
2
6
PCE after 50 keV proton irradiation of 5 × 10 p cm and withstanding fluences up to 10 p cm -2[36] . The
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absence of hygroscopic and volatile organic cations, combined with the high mobility of Cs CrI , contributed
2
6
to long-term stability by suppressing charge-carrier recombination at vacancy sites. Surface passivation has
emerged as another effective strategy. Moreover, surface passivation has proven effective:
propane-1,3-diammonium iodide (PDAI )-treated (Cs FA )Pb(I Br Cl ) devices exhibited reduced
0.79
2
0.22
0.78
0.17
0.04 3
ion migration, suppressed volatile species formation, and mitigated δ-phase CsPbI and PbI generation after
3
2
proton irradiation [Figure 2C] [37-39] .