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Geng et al. Carbon Footprints 2025, 4, 8 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cf.2025.02 Page 13 of 15

valuable insights into the environmental impact of vehicle-to-grid technology and its geographical
variability, providing a theoretical foundation for developing region-specific policies.

This study has the following limitations. In V2G technical model, due to the data availability constraints, a
droop model based on normally distributed random arrays and a grid scheduling model based on TOU
tariff policies are adopted to simulate the charging and discharging process of EV batteries. While these
methods have been widely used in existing research, they may still deviate to some extent from actual
operating conditions. Another limitation stems from the input data. Specifically, the user behavior data
utilized in this study is derived from historical operating records of over 1,000 sample EVs. Due to the
limited sample size, the statistical outcomes may not fully capture the actual behavioral patterns of EV users
in different regions. Furthermore, the underlying data used in this study come from multiple sources, which
introduces temporal inconsistencies across datasets. To ensure overall consistency, this study uniformly
adopts data from the year 2023. Future research should prioritize ongoing model refinement and
continuous data updates to enhance the timeliness, accuracy, and reliability of the results.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Methodology, investigation, formal analysis, writing - original draft: Geng, J.
Methodology, investigation, writing - review & editing: Dou, H.
Methodology, writing - review & editing: Hao, X.
Conceptualization: Liu, Z.; Zhao, F.
Conceptualization, methodology, writing - review & editing, project administration, supervision, funding
acquisition: Hao, H.

Availability of data and materials
The data supporting the findings of this study are available within this Article and its
Supplementary Material. Further data are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable
request.

Financial support and sponsorship
This study is sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (72122010), National Key
R&D Program of China (2019YFC1908501), supported by Carbon Neutrality and Energy System
Transformation (CNEST) Program led by Tsinghua University, and the International Joint Mission on
Climate Change and Carbon Neutrality.

Conflicts of interest
Hao, H. is the Guest Editor of the Special Issue “Challenges and Opportunities for Transport Carbon
Neutrality” and the Associate Editor of the journal Carbon Footprints. Hao, H. was not involved in any steps
of editorial processing, notably including reviewer selection, manuscript handling, and decision making,
while the other authors have declared that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication
Not applicable.