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Tong et al. Carbon Footprints 2025;4:2 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cf.2024.44 Page 15 of 18

Nonetheless, this paper acknowledges certain limitations. Firstly, the input-output methodology employs
value quantities instead of physical quantities, introducing a bias compared to product lifecycle assessments
grounded in material flows. This discrepancy may affect the accuracy and pertinence of our findings,
especially in assessing environmental impacts. Secondly, there is a notable time lag in compiling
environmental input-output tables, failing to capture the swift evolution of China’s electric vehicle market.
As a result, our analysis does not fully mirror the latest advancements and dynamics within the industry.
Future research is expected to address these limitations, offering a more comprehensive and up-to-date
understanding of the subject.

To achieve substantial GHG emission reductions in the automobile industry, it is imperative to embrace a
holistic approach that integrates energy transition, material recycling, and mobility innovation. All
stakeholders must collaborate to effectively develop and implement these strategies, balancing both
economic and environmental considerations, in pursuit of carbon neutrality.

DECLARATIONS
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank Prof. Xianlai Zeng and Prof. Ming Xu from Tsinghua University, and
Prof. Gang Liu from Peking University for their valuable advice at the beginning of the research.

Authors’ contributions
Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, resources, writing - original draft, writing - review &
editing, formal analysis, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition: Tong X
Conceptualization, methodology, software, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, visualization: Gao J
Conceptualization, methodology, software, formal analysis, visualization: Wang T
Conceptualization, investigation, resources: Shi X

Availability of data and materials
The data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Regarding carbon emissions
by automobile manufacturing and other industries, the data are originally from the Chinese
environmentally extended input-output (CEEIO) database developed by Prof. Ming Xu at the University of
Michigan in collaboration with Prof. Sai Liang at Guangdong University of Technology and Prof. Xi Tian at
Nanchang University [28,29] .

Financial support and sponsorship
This research falls under one of the projects of the Erasmus Initiative: Dynamics of Inclusive Prosperity, a
joint project funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and the Dutch Research
Council (NWO): “Towards Inclusive Circular Economy: Transnational Network for Wise-waste Cities
(IWWCs)” (NSFC project number: 72061137071; NWO project number: 482.19.608). The fieldwork and
data acquisition were supported by the National Key R&D Program of China on Solid Waste Management
[grant number 2018YFC1900101].

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest. Shi X is affiliated with China Automotive
Technology & Research Center Co., Ltd.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.