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Geng et al. Carbon Footprints 2025, 4, 8 Carbon Footprints
DOI: 10.20517/cf.2025.02

Original Article Open Access

Additional emissions of vehicle-to-grid technology

considering China’s geographical heterogeneity

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3
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1,2
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Jingxuan Geng , Hao Dou , Xu Hao , Zongwei Liu , Fuquan Zhao , Han Hao 1,2
1
School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
2
Tsinghua-Rio Tinto Joint Research Center for Resources Energy and Sustainable Development, Tsinghua University, Beijing
100084, China.
3
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
Correspondence to: Dr. Han Hao, School of Vehicle and Mobility, Tsinghua University, 30 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District,
Beijing 100084, China. E-mail: hao@tsinghua.edu.cn
How to cite this article: Geng, J.; Dou, H.; Hao, X.; Liu, Z.; Zhao, F.; Hao, H. Additional emissions of vehicle-to-grid technology
considering China’s geographical heterogeneity. Carbon Footprints 2025, 4, 8. https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/cf.2025.02
Received: 8 Jan 2025 First Decision: 21 Feb 2025 Revised: 1 Mar 2025 Accepted: 10 Mar 2025 Published: 14 Mar 2025
Academic Editor: Yuli Shan Copy Editor: Fangling Lan Production Editor: Fangling Lan

Abstract
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology is regarded as a promising distributed energy storage solution that can help
address grid challenges arising from the integration of renewable energy and the large-scale uncoordinated
charging of electric vehicles. However, issues such as additional battery degradation and energy efficiency losses
induced by V2G may lead to increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in providing energy storage services,
thereby reducing its overall potential to contribute to power system decarbonization. Existing studies on the
additional GHG emissions of energy storage technologies have largely overlooked V2G technology. To fill this
research gap, this study develops a comprehensive life cycle assessment model for V2G technology in China. The
model first simulates the charging and discharging processes of EV batteries in V2G applications, as well as the
additional battery degradation caused by V2G participation. Building on this technical modeling and incorporating
multidimensional geographic heterogeneity data, a high-resolution assessment of V2G’s lifecycle additional GHG
emissions is conducted across 337 cities in China. The results reveal that V2G’s additional GHG emissions for
frequency regulation (FR) and peak shaving and valley filling (PSVF) services range from 0.046-0.152 and
0.036-0.148 kgCO 2-eq /kWh, respectively. Energy-related GHG emissions constitute the largest proportion,
accounting for 59.0% and 66.8% of total emissions for FR and PSVF services, respectively. From a geographic
perspective, the additional GHG emissions of V2G are lowest in southwestern China and highest in the northeast.
The findings of this study highlight significant regional variations in the environmental impacts of V2G technology
in China and underscore the importance of region-specific strategies for the effective and sustainable deployment
of V2G technology.

Keywords: Vehicle-to-grid, life cycle assessment, energy storage, lifecycle greenhouse gas emission

© The Author(s) 2025. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, for any purpose, even commercially, as
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