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Sadagopan et al. Art Int Surg 2024;4:387-400 Artificial
DOI: 10.20517/ais.2024.34
Intelligence Surgery

Review Open Access

Beyond AI and robotics: the dawn of surgical
automation in spine surgery

Nishanth S. Sadagopan, Dillan Prasad, Rishi Jain, Christopher Ahuja, Nader S. Dahdaleh, Najib E. El Tecle

Department of Neurological Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
Correspondence to: Prof. Najib E. El Tecle, Department of Neurological Surgery, Northwestern University Feinberg School of
Medicine, 676 N. St. Clair Street, Suite 2210, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. E-mail: najib.eltecle@nm.org

How to cite this article: Sadagopan NS, Prasad D, Jain R, Ahuja C, Dahdaleh NS, El Tecle NE. Beyond AI and robotics: the dawn of
surgical automation in spine surgery. Art Int Surg 2024;4:387-400. https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ais.2024.34

Received: 31 May 2024 First Decision: 17 Oct 2024 Revised: 21 Oct 2024 Accepted: 29 Oct 2024 Published: 11 Nov 2024

Academic Editors: Andrew Gumbs, Peter Passias Copy Editor: Pei-Yun Wang Production Editor: Pei-Yun Wang

Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI), deep learning (DL), and machine learning (ML) algorithms are revolutionizing spine
surgery. Soon, these technologies may allow the integration of automated devices into clinical practice. The roles of
such devices are yet to be imagined and then developed, but one could assume that automated surgical devices
can assist spine surgeons in a variety of ways, such as contextual guidance, precise screw placements, or
intraoperative monitoring. In the not-too-distant future, such devices may be able to perform entire surgeries
autonomously. Current literature suggests that advancements toward autonomous robotic surgery may improve
surgical approaches and reduce negative clinical variation in spine surgery outcomes. This review aims to examine
the current trends, practices, and advancements in surgical automation and provide an overview of the stages of
automation of devices currently employed within spine surgery.

Keywords: Neurological surgery, spine surgery, robotic surgery, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep
learning, surgical automation

INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and surgical automation
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing healthcare by arguably mimicking human intelligence in
machines, enabling them to perform complex tasks autonomously. At the forefront of this movement is

© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, for any purpose, even commercially, as
long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and
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