Page 47 - Read Online

Genova et al. Mini-invasive Surg 2020;4:2 I http://dx.doi.org/10.20517/2574-1225.2019.30 Page 3 of 8

Ctesibius of Alexandria (285-222 BC) was known to have built many human figures able to move and drink,
as well as a black bird singing by means of a water flow. Moreover, Heron of Alexandria (10 BC-70 AD)
[3,4]
conceived and constructed an entire theatre scene played by automata .
In 949 AD, Liutprand of Cremona visited Constantinople and described the automata of Emperor
Theophilos’ palace, including metal lions striking the ground with their tails and roaring with open mouth
[5]
and quivering tongue .
In the Islamic world, the polymath Al-Jazari (1136-1206 AD) wrote a treatise where he described several
automata he had designed and constructed, including automated musicians conceived to amuse royal
[3]
guests .

During the Renaissance, several inventors were dedicated to the construction of automata, such as Giovanni
Fontana (1395-1454 AD), who designed automatic war machines capable of throwing bombs, and Leonardo
da Vinci (1452-1519 AD), who designed a mechanic knight able to stand up and sit down, wave its arms,
[4]
and move his head and jaws .
However, the real progress in the construction of modern robots was reached with the Industrial Revolution
and the development of calculators, and it was surprising.

From industry to surgery
At the origin of the development of robotic technology during the 20th century, there was the concept of
“telepresence”, intended as the idea that people can appear, receive stimulations, and produce some effects
in a place other than their real location as if they were really present. This idea animated the development of
the first robotic arms intended to be used in hostile environments, such as the ocean floor, or to manipulate
[3]
hazardous materials .

Already in 1951, engineer Raymond Goertz designed the first teleoperated articulated arm for the United
States Atomic Energy Commission to handle radioactive material safely and reduce the risks for personnel.
This system was a manipulator using just pulleys and cables as mechanical coupling between operator and
[6,7]
machine, but it already represented a major progress in terms of design and feedback technology .
In 1954, engineer George Devol patented a programmable robotic system designed for transferring objects and
conceived for a large variety of purposes. From this initial project, he developed the world’s first industrial robot,
Unimate. He also co-founded with engineer Joseph Engelberger the world’s first robotics company, Unimation,
[7,8]
located in Danbury, Connecticut, to produce Unimate .

In 1961, the first Unimate robot was installed in a General Motors factory in New Jersey and consisted of a
robotic arm for lifting hot metal objects from die-casting machines and stacking them. Several automobile
companies soon understood the potential of this technology, and large-scale production of this robot
[7,8]
started .
In 1969, Victor Scheinman, a researcher of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, developed the
“Stanford Arm”. It was an all-electric, computer-controlled, six-axis articulated robotic arm, able to follow
random trajectories and perform a series of instructions, unlike previous machines, which moved along
one fixed trajectory and performed only one task repeatedly. Indeed, the “Stanford Arm” was specifically
designed to widen the application of robots to complex tasks, such as assembly and arc welding. Its potential
applications were proved in 1974, when a sensor guided experimental version of this robotic arm managed
[7-9]
to assemble a car water pump without any human intervention .