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Na et al. Soft Sci. 2026, 6, 25 Page 17 of 22

address limited light utilization, future research should focus on enhancing light-matter interactions through
advanced photon-management strategies, including high absorption photoactive materials and vertical
structure. Insufficient adaptive learning capability may be overcome by designing wavelength-selective
optoelectronic synapses, particularly through heterojunction engineering that enables controllable
bidirectional charge carrier transport and reversible weight modulation without external electrical bias.
Device instability and variability can be addressed by an encapsulation process using hydrophobic
transparent materials to prevent environmental defects and by achieving a precise and uniform film
morphology. Achieving system-level integration requires extending device-level advances toward
array-based architectures, incorporating optical waveguides, passive optical interconnects, and
wavelength-division to suppress crosstalk and enable scalable in-sensor computing. Developing intrinsically
soft electronic materials and mechanically reliable interfaces will be as crucial as designing architectures that
preserve neuromorphic fidelity under dynamically changing environmental and physiological conditions.
Furthermore, integrating optical interconnects and scalable fabrication strategies will be essential for
translating device-level concepts into practical systems capable of hardware-based image recognition and
vector-matrix computation.

In the end, the convergence of zero-power operation, mechanical compliance, and neuromorphic
intelligence will define the next phase of wearable technology. Future systems are expected to evolve beyond
discrete sensing modules into fully integrated, adaptive networks capable of continuous perception, energy
regulation, and physiological interpretation within body-interfaced environments. By autonomously
managing energy flow and decoding multimodal biosignals, these platforms could function as intelligent
companions for long-term health monitoring and responsive therapeutic control. Ultimately, this shift
toward zero-power, soft, and cognitively capable electronics will not only advance wearable systems but also
redefine how human-machine interfaces enable sustainable and lifelong interaction with the body,
environment, and technology.

DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Conceived the topic: Na, M.; Park, J.; Sim, K.
Original draft writing: Na, M.; Park, J.; Sim, K.
Supervised and reviewed the manuscript: Sim, K.

Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.

AI and AI-assisted tools statement
During the preparation of this manuscript, the AI-based tool Springer Nature's Curie was used solely for
language editing. The tool did not influence the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or the
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of the manuscript.

Financial support and sponsorship
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean
government, Ministry of Science and ICT (No. RS-2024-00346943).

Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.

Consent for publication