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Page 47 Cediel-Becerra et al. One Health Implement Res 2023;3:42-54 https://dx.doi.org/10.20517/ohir.2023.01

[16]
accessibility to canine and feline vaccinations for pet owners . If an urban, affluent area like Bogota has
low access and coverage, then it is likely access to rabid vaccination in rural areas is even lower. Moreover,
recent studies show that many vaccinated animals do not reach the threshold level of immunity in
accordance with the anti-rabies antibody titre as defined by the World Health Organization of Animal
Health (WOHA, formerly OIE) [18,19] . This highlights logistical failures in cold chain maintenance and
expiration dates in supply chains, often due to the complicated climatic, geographical and social conditions
of some regions . However, the Colombian Ministry of Health must be commended on their targeting of
[20]
pets in areas which border Venezuela (La Guajira, Cesar, Norte de Santander, Arauca, Vichada, and Guainí
a) where rabies is still a major public health concern in many areas - a necessary step to prevent overflow
across the frontier . The status of rabies in Colombian livestock, however, is a much bleaker picture. The
[21]
presence of rabies disease in cattle was reported in 62.5% of the country’s departments and livestock
vaccination coverage was found to be less than 10% in the susceptible cattle population - however, this data
is from 2014 and vaccination coverage has improved substantially since anti-rabies vaccination campaigns
are done together with foot-and-mouth disease campaigns in the country . In 2023, the Agriculture and
[22]
Livestock Colombian Institute (ICA), launched the Resolution 4003, which established the period and
conditions of the first cycle of vaccination against foot-and-mouth disease, bovine brucellosis and rabies by
the year 2023 in the national territory. In this coming cycle, ICA will vaccinate 10 million animals located in
18 departments, a historic number for the country. In this regard, evidence shows a decrease in bovine cases
over 14 years from 2005 onwards, with a maximum of 542 in 2014 and a minimum of 43 in 2019. The
greatest cluster occurred in the Orinoquia region, and the departments of Antioquia, Arauca, Casanare,
Cesar, Magdalena and Córdoba continually report the highest number of bovine rabies cases .
[23]
Wildlife
Additionally, in the early 2000s, evidence was found of circulation of the rabies genetic variant 2 among
Colombian wildlife. Notably, a number of grey foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in northern Colombia
have been found to have been infected with rabies, likely transmitted from domestic canines . This
[14]
presents a major public health threat in the region as these foxes frequently interact with farmers, pets, and
livestock, providing an optimal scenario for the sustenance of rabies transmission between wildlife and
domestic animals, and subsequent overflow into humans. Evidence generated by the local department of
Magdalena presented the major enabling factors, most notably overlapping niches and phylogenetic
proximity between the two species . This demonstrates the need to employ a One Health approach to
[14]
expand surveillance into local wildlife populations, ensuring to address all elements of the human-animal-
environment interface where rabies predominates. With respect to vampire bat rabies - as aforementioned,
the key for human infection in Colombia - historical efforts focused on culling have proven disruptive to
ecosystems and ineffective, often exacerbating rabies spread as populations disperse. A major determinant
of an intervention’s success is its acceptability among target communities; however, attitudes towards rabies
control methods are heterogenous. The general public typically view population control as inhumane,
whereas farmers welcome more intensive methods, such as culling, due to fear of poor livestock health and
profit loss. Consequently, recent research is oriented around the development of preventative methods such
as oral vaccination, which shows promise in reducing onward transmission without promoting survival of
rabies-infected bats, which appeals to farmers. As of yet, however, their immediate deployment for control
is not feasible .
[24]

Humans
In Colombia, risk of human rabies transmission and infection is highest among populations which live in
close contact with animals, such as indigenous persons and cattle farming communities, and have nearby
occurrences of rabies in wildlife, particularly where the primary reservoir is the vampire bat, Desmodus