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Table 2. Alterations in the GM composition observed in depressed patients
Sequencing
Study Participants Increased Decreased
methods
Naseribafrouei N = 37 depressed 16S rRNA Order bacteroidales Family: Lachnospiraceae
et al. [155] patients (mean age 49.2 Genera: Alistipes and Oscillibacter
years) and N = 18 HCs
(mean age 49.2 years)
[149]
Jiang et al. N = 46 depressed Pyrosequencing Phyla: Actinomycetota, Bacteroidota, and Phylum: Bacillota
patients and N = 30 Pseudomonadota Genus: Faecalibacterium
HCs Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Age rank: 18-40 years Genus: Alistipes
Zheng et al. [152] N = 165 subjects with 16S rRNA Phylum: Actinomycetota Phylum: Bacteroidota
MDD and N = 217 HCs Families: Actinomycetaceae, Families: Acidaminococcaceae,
Coriobacteriaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroidaceae, Rikenellaceae,
Lachnospiraceae, Lactobacteriaceae, Sutterellaceae, and Veillonellaceae
Ruminococcaceae, and Streptococcaceae Genera: Alistipes, Clostridium XlVa,
Genera: Anaerostipes, Blautia, Coprococcus, Faecalibacterium,
Clostridiales incertae sedis XI, Dorea, Lachnospiracea incertae sedis,
Rothia and Slackia
Erysipelotrichaceae incertae sedis, and Megamonas, Phascolarctobacterium,
Parvimonas and Roseburia
[147]
Chen et al. N = 10 MDD patients Metaproteomics Phyla: Actinomycetota, and Bacillota Phyla: Bacteroidota and
(age, 18-56 years) and Families: Actinomycetaceae, Pseudomonadota
N = 10 HCs (age, 24-65 Bifidobacteriaceae, Clostridiaceae, Families: Chitinophagaceae,
years) Erysipelotrichaceae, Lachnospiraceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Marinilabiliaceae,
Nocardiaceae, Porphyromonadaceae, Oscillospiraceae, Prevotellaceae,
Ruminococcaceae, and Streptomycetaceae Rikenellaceae, and Sutterellaceae
Genus: Faecalibacterium
[148]
Chung et al. N = 36 MDD patients 16S rRNA Phylum: Actinomycetota Phyla: Bacteroidota and
and N = 37 HCs Families: Bifidobacteriaceae, Pseudomonadota
Age rank: 20-65 years Lachnospiraceae Peptostreptococcaceae, Families: Alcaligenaceae and
Porphyromonadaceae, and Streptococcaceae Prevotellaceae
Genera: Adlercreutzia, Bifidobacterium, Genera: Megamonas, Prevotella, and
Clostridium cluster X I, Eggerthella, Sutterella
Holdemania, Parabacteroides,
Ruminococcus, and Streptococcus
Rong et al. [151] N = 31 depressed Shotgun Phyla: Actinomycetota, and Bacillota Phylum: Bacteroidota
subjects (mean age 41.6 metagenomics Genera: Bacteroides, Bifidobacterium,
years), and N = 30 HCs Clostridium, Oscillibacter, and Streptococcus
(mean age 39.5 years)
Yang et al. [143] N = 156 MDD patients Metagenomic Genus: Bacteroides Genera: Blautia and Eubacterium
and N = 155 HCs
Age rank: 18-65 years
[146]
Zheng et al. N = 165 MDD patients 16S rRNA Families: Bacteroidaceae and Family: Enterobacteriaceae
(mean age 26.5 years) Bifidobacteriaceae
and N = 217 HCs (mean
age 26.8 years)
Lai et al. [150] N = 26 depressed Shotgun Phylum: Actinomycetota Phylum: Bacteroidota
patients and N = 29 metagenomic Genera: Atopobium, Bifidobacterium,
HCs Coriobacterium, Eggerthella, Olsenella,

Stevens et al. [153] N = 20 depressed 16S rRNA Families: Acidaminococcaceae, Family: Lachnospiraceae
patients and N = 20 Coriobacteriaceae, and Enterobacteriaceae Genera: Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium,
HCs (mean age 34 Genera: Alistipes, Blautia, Flavonifractor, and Ruminococcus
years) Holdemania, Oscillibacter, Parabacteroides,
Phascolarctobacterium and Roseburia
Mayneris- N = 25 depressed Shotgun Genera: Acidaminococcus and Family: Lachnospiraceae
Perxachs patients, N = 25 MDD metagenomic Parabacteroides Genus: Bifidobacterium
et al. [154] and N = 44 HCs
GM: Gut microbiome; HCs: healthy controls; MDD: major depressive disorder.

Emerging evidence suggests that early-life GM plays a critical role in shaping long-term health, with
disruptions during key developmental stages contributing to various chronic conditions. Alterations in GM
composition, driven by factors such as maternal stress, early nutrition, and perinatal antibiotics, can have
lasting effects on immune and metabolic processes. Moreover, exposure to prenatal and postnatal